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Makerere University College

Makerere University College

Makerere University is Uganda's largest and most prestigious university. It was first established as a technical school in 1922, and in 1963 it became the University of East Africa, offering courses leading to general degrees of the University of London. It became an independent national university in 1970 when the University of East Africa was split into three independent universities: University of Nairobi (Kenya), University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) and Makerere University. Today, Makerere University has 22 faculties, institutes and schools offering programmes for about 30,000 undergraduates and 3,000 postgraduates. Makerere was home to many post-independence African leaders, including former Ugandan president Milton Obote and retired Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere. Former Tanzanian president Benjamin Mkapa and current Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki are also Makerere alum. In the years immediately after Ugandan independence, Makerere University was a focal point for the literary activity that was central to African nationalist culture. Some of the most important writers of today, including Nuruddin Farrah, Ali Mazrui, David Rubadiri, Okello Oculi, Ngugi wa Thiongo, John Ruganda and Peter Nazareth, were all at Makerere University at one point in their writing and academic careers.

Faculties

- Faculty of Agriculture
- Faculty of Arts
- Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation
- Faculty of Law
- Faculty of Medicine
- Faculty of Science
- Faculty of Social Sciences
- Faculty of Technology
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Institutes

- Institute of Adult and Continuing Education
- Institute of Computer Science
- Institute of Economics
- Institute of Environment and Natural Resources
- Institute of Social Research
- Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics and Psychology

Schools

- School of Education
- School of Industrial and Fine Arts
- School of Library and Information Science
- Business School
- Graduate School

Departments

- Directorate for ICT Support

Prominent alumni

- Archbishop John Sentamu of York, first black Archbishop of the Church of England.
- Okello Oculi, author, poet
- Peter Nazareth, author, critic
- David Rubadiri, Malawian poet, novelist, diplomat
- Benjamin Mkapa , former president of Tanzania
- Joseph Kabila, president of DRC Congo
- Specioza Kazibwe, first woman Vice President of Uganda from 1994 to 2003
- Julius Nyerere, former president of Tanzania
- Milton Obote, former president of Uganda
- Sir Frederick Edward Muteesa II, former king of Buganda
- Mwai Kibaki, president of Kenya (was also a lecturer at Makerere)
- Ngugi wa Thiongo, novelist (was also a lecturer at Makerere)
- Oginga Odinga, founding member of KANU and former Kenyan vice president
- Okot p'Bitek, poet (was later a lecturer at Makerere)
- Olara Otunnu, UN special representative for children and armed conflict
- Patrick Mazimhaka, Deputy Chairperson of the African Union's African Commission
- Charles Onyango-Obbo, columnist, editor and commentator of East African politics
- Joseph Sinde Warioba, Prime Minister of Tanzania from 1985 to 1990.

Trivia

- A historic and controversial conference of African literature in English language (The first African Writers Conference) was held at Makerere University in 1962, to debate the state of post-colonial African literature. Those who attended includeded Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Ezekiel Mphalele, Lewis Nkosi, Ngugi wa Thiongo (then known as James Ngugi) and Rajat Neogy. Several nationalist writers refused to acknowledge any literature written in non-African languages as being African literature.
- The renowned travel writer and novelist, Paul Theroux, was a lecturer in English at Makerere University in the 1970s.

External link

- [http://www.makerere.ac.ug/ Official website] Category:Universities and colleges in Uganda Category:Education in Uganda

Uganda

The Republic of Uganda, or Uganda, is a country in East Africa, bordered in the east by Kenya, in the north by Sudan, by the Democratic Republic of Congo in the west, Rwanda in the southwest and Tanzania in the south. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, within which it shares borders with Kenya and Tanzania. Uganda takes its name from the Buganda kingdom, which encompasses a portion of the south of the country, including the capital Kampala.

History

Little is known about the history of the region now covered by Uganda until the arrival of the Arabs and Europeans in the mid 1800s. Humans are known to have lived in the area since at least the first millennium BC. When Arabs and Europeans arrived in the 19th century, they encountered a number of kingdoms in the area. They included Ankole, Buganda, Bunyoro, Busoga, and Toro. The largest of these kingdoms was Buganda, which exists as part of Uganda today. Islam and Christianity were introduced to these kingdoms. The area was placed under the charter of the British East Africa Company in 1888, and was ruled as a protectorate by the United Kingdom from 1894. As several other territories and chiefdoms were integrated, the final protectorate called Uganda took shape in 1914. By 1966, the first Prime Minister, Milton Obote, had overthrown the constitution and declared himself president, ushering in an era of coups and counter-coups which would last until the mid-1980s. 1971 saw Idi Amin take power, ruling the country with the military for the coming decade. Idi Amin Idi Amin's rule cost an estimated 300,000 Ugandans' lives, and he forcibly removed the entrepreneurial East Indian minority from Uganda, decimating the economy. His reign was ended after an invasion by Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles in 1979. The situation improved little with the return of Milton Obote, who was deposed once more in 1985. The current president, Yoweri Museveni, has been in power since 1986 and was viewed as being part of a new generation of African leaders. There is controversy, however, about the change to the constitution that allows him to run for a third term. Relative stability has been brought to the country with the exception of the North, which continues to struggle with a rebel insurgency.

Politics

rebel insurgency]] The President of Uganda, currently Yoweri Museveni, is both head of state and head of government. The president appoints a prime minister who aids him in his tasks. The current prime minister is Apolo Nsibambi. The parliament is formed by the National Assembly, which has 303 members. 86 of these members are nominated by interest groups, including women and the Ugandan army. The remaining members are elected for five-year terms during general elections. In a measure ostensibly designed to reduce sectarian violence, political parties were restricted in their activities from 1986. In the non-party "Movement" system instituted by Yoweri Museveni, political parties continued to exist but could not campaign in elections or field candidates directly (although electoral candidates could belong to political parties). A constitutional referendum cancelled this 19-year ban on multi-party politics in July 2005. 2005

Geography

Although landlocked, Uganda has access to several large water bodies, including Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake Kyoga and Lake Edward. The country is located on a plateau, averaging about 900 m above sea level. Although generally tropical in nature, the climate differs between parts of the country. Uganda includes several offshore islands in Lake Victoria. Most important cities are located in the south, near Lake Victoria, including the capital Kampala and the nearby city of Entebbe. Uganda is divided into 70 districts, spread across four administrative divisions: Northern, Eastern, Central and Western. The districts are all named after their 'chief town'. The city of Kampala, for example, is in the district of Kampala.

Economy

Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile soils, regular rainfall, and sizable mineral deposits of copper and cobalt. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, employing over 80% of the work force, with coffee accounting for the bulk of export revenues. Since 1986, the government - with the support of foreign countries and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate an economy decimated during the regime of Idi Amin and subsequent civil war. Stabilising measures have included currency reform, raising producer prices on export crops, increasing prices of petroleum products, and improving civil service wages. The policy changes are especially aimed at dampening inflation, boosting production and improving the balance of payments. balance of payments During 1990-2001, the economy turned in a solid performance based on continued investment in the rehabilitation of infrastructure, improved incentives for production and exports, reduced inflation, gradually improved domestic security, and the return of exiled Indian-Ugandan entrepreneurs. Ongoing Ugandan involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, corruption within the government, and slippage in the government's determination to press reforms raise doubts about the continuation of strong growth. In 2000, Uganda qualified for the enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief initiative worth $1.3 billion and Paris Club debt relief worth $145 million. These amounts combined with the original HIPC debt relief added up to about $2 billion. Growth for 2001-02 was solid despite continued decline in the price of coffee, Uganda's principal export. According to IMF statistics, in 2004 Uganda's GDP per-capita reached 300 dollars, a much higher level than in the Eighties but still at half of Sub-Saharan African average income of 600 dollars a years. Total GDP crossed the 8 billion dollar mark in the same year.

Demographics

, see also Languages of Uganda Languages of Uganda Uganda is home to many different ethnic groups, none of whom form a majority of the population. Around forty different languages are currently in use in the country. English became the official language of Uganda after independence. The language with the largest number of native speakers is Luganda, spoken in the Buganda region which encompasses Kampala. The Ateso language follows, spoken by about 4.2 million people covering seven Districts in the Eastern part of the country. Kiswahili is widely used as a basic trade language.

Religion

Christian and Muslim missionaries first arrived in the 1860s, attempting to convert the Bugandan king. The National Census of October 2002 resulted in the the clearest and most detailed information ever given on the religious composition of Uganda. According to the Census, Christians of all denominations made up 85.1% of Uganda's Population. The Catholic Church has the largest number of adherents(41,9%) followed by the Church of Uganda -a local Anglican denomination- (31,9%). Minor Christian groups include Pentecostals (4,6%) and SDA followers (1.5%), while 1,0% were grouped under the cathegory 'Other Christians'. The second religion of Uganda is Islam, with Muslims representing 12,1% of the population according to the Census. Some Muslim Associations believe their numbers have been undercounted, as often the case in Sub-Saharan African Countries dominated by non-muslim rulers. The CIA Factbook estimate for the number of Muslims is 16%. While Muslims today appear to be experiencing some degree of discrimination, they were in the Seventies the most favoured group under the rule of President Idi Amin Dada, himself a Muslim, under whose Government the number of Muslims had significantly grown. Only 1% of Uganda's population follow Traditional Religions and 0,7% are classified as 'Other Non Christians. Also to note is that Uganda hosts one of only seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship in the world. It is known as the Mother Temple of Africa and is situated on Kikaya Hill on the outskirts of Kampala. Its foundation stone was laid in January 1958, and was dedicated on January 13, 1961.

AIDS-prevention

:See also: AIDS in Africa Uganda has been hailed as a rare success story in the fight against HIV and AIDS, widely being viewed as the most effective national response to the pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa. A variety of approaches to AIDS education have been employed, ranging from the promotion of condom use to 'abstinence only' programmes. The scope of Uganda's success has come under scrutiny from new research. Research published in The Lancet medical journal in 2002 questions the dramatic decline reported. It is claimed statistics have been distorted through the inaccurate extrapolation of data from small urban clinics to the entire population, nearly 90 per cent of whom live in rural areas.[http://www.overpopulation.com/articles/2002/000075.html] US-sponsored abstinence promotions have received recent criticism from observers for denying young people information about any method of HIV prevention other than sexual abstinence until marriage. Human Rights Watch says that such programmes "leave Uganda’s children at risk of HIV".[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/03/30/uganda10380.htm]

Culture

Due to the large number of ethnic communities, many still living within their own kingdoms, culture within Uganda is diverse. Many Asians (mostly from India) who were expelled during the regime of Amin are returning to Uganda.
- Music of Uganda
- List of writers from Uganda

Human rights

Respect for human rights in Uganda has been advanced significantly since the mid-1980s. There are, however, numerous areas which continue to attract concern. The conflict in the north continues to generate reports of abuses by both the rebel Lord's Resistance Army and the Uganda People's Defence Force. Torture continues to be a widespread practice amongst security organisations. Attacks on political freedom in the country, including the arrest and beating of opposition Members of Parliament, has led to international criticism, culminating in May 2005 in a decision by the British government to withhold part of its aid to the country.

External links

Government

- [http://www.government.go.ug/ Government of Uganda] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.ug/ Parliament of the Republic of Uganda] official site
- [http://www.visituganda.com/ Uganda Tourist Board] official site

News

- [http://allafrica.com/uganda/ allAfrica.com - Uganda] news headline links
- [http://www.procnews.com/ East African Procurement News] business weekly
- [http://www.monitor.co.ug/ Monitor] independent national newspaper
- [http://www.myuganda.co.ug/ My Uganda] news and community
- [http://www.newvision.co.ug/ New Vision] government-owned national newspaper
- [http://www.uganda-news.com Uganda News] The Top headlines from the major Ugandan newspapers.

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1069166.stm BBC News Country Profile - Uganda]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ug.html CIA World Factbook - Uganda]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ug/ US State Department - Uganda] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Uganda.html Columbia University Libraries - Uganda] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Uganda/ Open Directory Project - Uganda] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/uganda.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Uganda] directory category
- [http://www.ugandaonline.net/ UgandaOnline] directory
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Uganda/ Yahoo! - Uganda] directory category

Other

- [http://www.ugandacan.org/ Uganda Conflict Action Network] working for peace in northern Uganda
- [http://www.refugeelawproject.org Refugee Law Project] An organisation working with refugees and the conflict in northern Uganda

Tourism

-
- [http://www.visituganda.com/ Uganda Tourist Board]
- [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/africa/uganda/ Lonely Planet Uganda Guide]
- [http://www.aboutuganda.com Uganda Travel Directory] - aboutuganda travel guide Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Uganda ko:우간다 ms:Uganda ja:ウガンダ th:ประเทศอูกันดา

1922

1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 7 - Dáil Éireann, the extra-legal parliament of the Irish Republic, ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64-57 votes.
- January 10 - Arthur Griffith is elected President of Dáil Éireann.
- January 11 - First successful insulin treatment of diabetes.
- January 12 - British government releases remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of Independence.
- January 13 - Flu epidemic has claimed 804 victims in Britain.
- January 15 - Michael Collins becomes Chairman of the Irish Provisional Government.
- January 24 - Christian K. Nelson patents the Eskimo Pie.
- January 29 - Union of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador is dissolved
- February 1 - William Desmond Taylor, Hollywood director, is shot in his home
- February 2 - Ulysses (novel) by James Joyce is published in Paris on his fortieth birthday by Sylvia Beach.
- February 5 - DeWitt and Lila Wallace publish the first issue of Reader's Digest.
- February 6 - Achille Ratti becomes Pope Pius XI.
- February 6 - Five Power Naval Disarmament Treaty signed between United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy
- February 8 - President of the United States, Warren G. Harding introduces the first radio in the White House.
- February 8 - Cheka becomes GPU, a section of NKVD
- February 14 - Finnish Minister of the Interior Heikki Ritavuori is assassinated by Ernst Tandefelt.
- February 25 - Murderer Henri Désiré Landru's head is chopped off by the guillotine.
- February 27 - A challenge to the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, allowing women the right to vote, is rebuffed by the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 28 - The United Kingdom accepts the independence of Egypt.
- March 1 - Ice mass breaks the Oder dam in Breslau
- March 1 - The British Civil Aviation Authority is established.
- March 11 - Mohandas Gandhi is arrested in Bombay for sedition
- March 15 - Egypt having gained nominal independence from the United Kingdom, Fuad I becomes King of Egypt.
- March 18 - In India, Mohandas Gandhi is sentenced to six years in prison for sedition. He would serve only two years.
- March 20 - The USS Langley is commissioned as the first United States Navy aircraft carrier.
- April 7 - Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior leases Teapot Dome oil reserves in Wyoming.
- April 7 - First air collision between Daimler Airways DH 18 ja Grands Express Farman Goliat collide over Poix
- April 10 - The historic Genoa Conference commences in Genoa. The representatives of 34 countries convened to speak about monetary economics in the wake of World War I.
- April 13 - State of Massachusetts opens all public offices to women
- April 16 - The Treaty of Rapallo marks rapprochement between the Weimar Republic and Bolshevist Russia.
- May 5 - In The Bronx, construction begins on Yankee Stadium.
- May 12 - 20-ton meteorite lands near Blackstone, Virginia, USA
- May 19 - Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union is established.
- May 29 - British Liberal MP Horatio Bottomley jailed for 7 years for fraud fraud
- May 30 - In Washington, D.C., the Lincoln Memorial is dedicated.
- June 1 - Official founding of the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
- June 1 - Bolshevik forces defeat Asmachi troops under Enver Pasha
- June 22 - IRA rebels assassinated British field marshal Henry Wilson in Belgravia - assassins are sentenced to death July 18.
- June 24 - Assassination of Weimar Republic foreign minister Walter Rathenau - murderers are captured July 17
- June 26 - Louis Honoré Charles Antoine Grimaldi becomes Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco.
- June 28 - The Irish Civil War begins
- August 12 - Death of Arthur Griffith, President of Dáil Éireann
- August 22 - Death of General Michael Collins - President of the Irish Provisional Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Provisional Army, killed in an ambush.
- August 23 - Revolt against the Spanish in Morocco
- August 28 - Japan agrees to withdraw its troops from Siberia
- September 9 - Turkish forces pursuing withdrawing Greek troops enter Smyrna
- September 11 - One of the Herald Sun of Melbourne, Australia's predecessor papers The Sun News-Pictorial is founded.
- September 13 - 15 - Fire, probably started by Turkish troops, destroys most of Smyrna. Death toll estimated 100,000
- September 18 - Hungary joins the League of Nations
- October 9 - Sir William Horwood, London Metropolitan Police Service commissioner is poisoned by arsenic-filled chocolates
- October 23 - German army occupies Saxony and crushes Soviet Republic of Saxony
- October 25 - The Third Dáil enacts the Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- October 28 - In Italy, with the March on Rome, Fascism obtains power and Benito Mussolini becomes prime minister
- October 28 - Red Army occupies Vladivostok
- October 31 - Benito Mussolini becomes the youngest Premier in the history of Italy.
- September 23 - Gdynia Seaport Construction Act passed by the Polish parliament.
- November 1 - Ottoman Empire is abolished and its last sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin abdicates.
- November 1 - The broadcasting license fee of ten shillings introduced in the United Kingdom
- November 4 - In Egypt, British archaeologist Howard Carter and his men find the entrance to King Tutankhamen's tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
- November 14 - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) begins radio service in the United Kingdom. 2LO became the first radio station in the United Kingdom.
- November 17 - Former Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI leaves for exile in Italy.
- November 19 - Abdul Mejid II, Crown Prince of the Ottoman Empire is elected Caliph.
- November 21 - Rebecca Felton of Georgia takes the oath of office, becoming the first woman United States Senator.
- November 24 - Popular author and Irish Republican Army member Robert Erskine Childers is executed by an Irish Free State firing squad for illegally carrying a revolver.
- November 26 - Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon become the first people to enter the tomb of Egyptian King Tutankhamun in over 3000 years. Tutankhamun
- December 5 - British parliament enacts the Irish Free State Constitution Act, by which it legally sanctions the new Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- December 6 - The Irish Free State officially comes into existence. George V becomes the Free State's monarch. Tim Healy is appointed first Governor-General of the Irish Free State and W.T. Cosgrave becomes President of the Executive Council.
- December 14 - Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz, the president of Poland
- December 30 - Russia and allied Soviet republics form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Exact month/day of event unknown

- Invention of Vegemite by Australian Fred Walker
- Kurd Istigdul Djemijetin, the Kurdish Independence Committee, founded
- Ring Magazine first published
- Molly Pitcher Club formed to promote the repeal of prohibition in United States
- Raymond Pearl founds Quarterly Review of Biology.
- Thompson Webb founds The Webb Schools

Births

January-March

- January 1 - Ernest "Fritz" Hollings, U.S. Senator from South Carolina
- January 7 - Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flutist (d. 2000)
- January 9 - Har Gobind Khorana, Indian biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 13 - Albert Lamorisse, French film director (d. 1970)
- January 16 - Ernesto Bonino, Italian singer
- January 17 - Nicholas Katzenbach, American politician
- January 17 - Betty White, American television actress
- January 19 - Guy Madison, American actor (d. 1996)
- January 21 - Paul Scofield, English actor
- January 22 - Leonel Brizola, Brazilian politician
- January 28 - Robert W. Holley, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993)
- January 30 - Dick Martin, American comedian
- February 1 - Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano (d. 2004)
- February 6 - Patrick Macnee, British actor
- February 6 - Bill Johnston, Australian cricketer
- February 6 - Denis Norden, British television and radio scriptwriter and personality
- February 7 - Hattie Jacques, British actress (d. 1980)
- February 9 - Kathryn Grayson, American actress
- February 15 - John Bayard Anderson, U.S Congressman and Presidential candidate
- February 17 - Marshall Teague, American race car driver (d. 1959)
- February 18 - Helen Gurley Brown, American editor and publisher
- February 24 - Richard Hamilton, British painter
- February 24 - Steven Hill, American actor
- March 1 - William Gaines, American publisher of MAD Magazine (d. 1992)
- March 1 - Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1995)
- March 5 - Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian film director
- March 8 - Mizuki Shigeru, Japanese author
- March 9 - Tommy Cooper, British comedian and magician (d. 1984)
- March 12 - Jack Kerouac, American author (d. 1969)
- March 12 - Lane Kirkland, American union leader (d. 1999)
- March 18 - Egon Bahr, German politician
- March 20 - Carl Reiner, American film director, producer, actor, and comedian
- March 21 - Russ Meyer, American film director and producer (d. 2004)
- March 27 - Stefan Wul, French writer (d. 2003)
- March 28 - Felice Chiusano, Italian singer (Quartetto Cetra)
- March 28 - Joey Maxim, American boxer (d. 2001)
- March 31 - Richard Kiley, American actor and singer (d. 1999)

April-June

- April 1 - William Manchester, American writer (d. 2004)
- April 3 - Maurice Riel, Canadian Senator
- April 4 - Elmer Bernstein, American composer (d. 2004)
- April 5 - Sir Tom Finney, English footballer
- April 5 - Christopher Hewett, British actor (d. 2001)
- April 5 - Gale Storm, American singer and actress
- April 7 - Mongo Santamaria, Cuban jazz musician (d. 2003)
- April 13 - Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania (d. 1999)
- April 16 - Sir Kingsley Amis, English novelist (d. 1995)
- April 22 - Charles Mingus, American musician (d. 1979)
- April 28 - Alistair MacLean, Scottish writer (d. 1987)
- May 7 - Darren McGavin, American actor
- May 14 - Franjo Tuđman, President of Croatia (d. 1999)
- May 15 - Setouchi Jakucho, Japanese writer and Buddhist nun
- May 18 - Kai Winding, Danish-born musician (d. 1983)
- May 21 - James Lopez Watson, American judge (d. 2001)
- May 22 - Quinn Martin, American television producer (d. 1987)
- May 25 - Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984)
- May 27 - Christopher Lee, English actor
- May 28 - Lou Duva, American boxing trainer
- May 29 - Iannis Xenakis, Greek composer (d. 2001)
- May 30 - Hal Clement, American writer (d. 2003)
- May 31 - Denholm Elliott, English actor (d. 1992)
- June 1 - Povel Ramel, Swedish musican
- June 2 - Charlie Sifford, American golfer
- June 10 - Judy Garland, American singer and actress (d. 1969)
- June 18 - Claude Helffer, French pianist (d. 2004)
- June 19 - Aage Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 24 - Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer and lyricist (Quartetto Cetra)
- June 29 - Vasko Popa, Yugoslavian poet (d. 1991)

July to December

- July 15 - Leon M. Lederman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 18 - Thomas Kuhn, American philosopher of science (d. 1996)
- July 19 - Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, King of Malaysia
- July 31 - Bill Kaysing, American writer
- August 15 - Lukas Foss, German-born composer
- August 17 - Agostinho Neto, Angolan politician (d. 1979)
- August 22 - Sosuke Uno, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1998)
- August 23 - George Kell, baseball player
- September 1 - Vittorio Gassmann, Italian actor and director (d. 2000)
- September 3 - Salli Terri, Canadian mezzo-soprano (d. 1996)
- September 8 - Sid Caesar, American actor and comedian
- September 9 - Hans Georg Dehmelt, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 12 - Jackson Mac Low, American poet (d. 2004)
- September 15 - Jackie Cooper, American actor and director
- September 22 - Chen Ning Yang, Chinese-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 25 - Hammer DeRoburt, first President of Nauru (d. 1992)
- October 1 - Burke Marshall, American lawyer and politician (d. 2003)
- October 5 - José Froilán González, Argentine race car driver
- October 15 - Luigi Giussani, Italian Catholic priest (d. 2005)
- October 22 - John Chafee, American politician (d. 1999)
- October 27 - Poul Bundgaard, Danish actor and singer (d. 1998)
- October 31 - Barbara Bel Geddes, film and stage actress (d. 2005)
- November 8 - Christiaan Barnard, South African surgeon (d. 2001)
- November 11 - Kurt Vonnegut, American novelist
- November 14 - Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian Secretary General of the United Nations
- November 14 - Veronica Lake, American actress
- November 16 - José Saramago, Portuguese author, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 17 - Stanley Cohen, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- November 19 - Yuri Knorosov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (d. 1999)
- November 26 - Charles M. Schulz American cartoonist (d. 2000)
- December 11 - Dilip Kumar, Indian actor
- December 14 - Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
- December 22 - Barbara Billingsley, American actress
- December 22 - Jack Brooks, American politician
- December 23 - Micheline Ostermeyer, French athlete and musician (d. 2001)
- December 23 - Donald Tennant, American advertising agency executive (d.2001)
- December 28 - Stan Lee, American comics creator

Deaths

- January 5 - Ernest Shackleton, Irish explorer (b. 1874)
- January 22 - Pope Benedict XV (b. 1854)
- January 22 - Fredrik Bajer, Danish politician and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1837)
- February 2 - William Desmond Taylor, Irish-born film director (b. 1872)
- March 1 - Rafael Moreno Aranzadi, Spanish footballer (b. 1892)
- March 24 - Walter Parr, British preacher (b. 1871)
- April 1 - Emperor Karl I of Austria (b. 1887)
- April 2 - Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist (b. 1884)
- May 18 - Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, French physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1845)
- May 19 - Son, Byong-Hi, Korean leader of the March 1st Movement (b. 1861)
- June 6 - Lillian Russell, American singer and actress (b. 1861)
- June 18 - Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer (b. 1851)
- June 26 - Albert I of Monaco (b. 1848)
- July 20 - Andrey Markov, Russian mathematician (b. 1856)
- August 2 - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor (b. 1847)
- August 5 - Harry Boland, Irish republican (b. 1887)
- August 12 - Arthur Griffith, President of Ireland (b. 1871)
- August 22 - Michael Collins, Irish leader (assassinated) (b. 1890)
- September 4 - Sarah L. Winchester, builder of the Winchester Mystery House (b. 1837)
- October 30 - Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author (b. 1863)
- November 7 - Sam Thompson, baseball player (b. 1860)

Marriages

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Niels Henrik David Bohr
- Chemistry - Francis William Aston
- Medicine - Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
- Literature - Jacinto Benavente
- Peace - Fridtjof Nansen

Heads of state in 1922

- Albania -
- Xhafer Ypi, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922).
- Ahmet Zogu, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922 - 1924).
- Belgium - King Albert I of Belgium (1909 - 1934).
- Bolshevist Russia/Soviet Union - Mikhail Kalinin, President of the Soviet Union (1919/1922 - 1946).
- Costa Rica - Julio Acosta García, President of Costa Rica (1920 - 1924).
- Denmark - King Christian X of Denmark (1912 - 1947).
- Egypt - King Fuad I of Egypt (1917/1922 - 1936).
- Ethiopia - Empress Zawditu of Ethiopia (1916 - 1930).
- France - Alexandre Millerand, President of France (1920 - 1924).
- Germany - Friedrich Ebert, Reich President (1919 - 1925).
- Italy - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (1900 - 1946).
- Japan - Yoshihito, the Taisho Emperor (1912 - 1926).
- Mexico - Álvaro Obregón, President of Mexico (1920 - 1924).
- Monaco -
- Reigning Prince Albert I of Monaco (1889 - 1922).
- Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco (1922- 1949).
- Netherlands - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1890 - 1948).
- Norway - King Haakon VII of Norway (1905 - 1957).
- Ottoman Empire -
- Sultan Mehmed VI (1918 - 1922).
- Caliph Abdul Mejid II (1922 - 1924).
- Republic of China -
- Xu Shichang of the Beijing government, President of the Republic of China (1918 - 1922).
- Sun Yat-sen of the Guangzhou government, rival President of the Republic of China (1921 - 1925).
- Saudi Arabia - Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia (1902 - 1953).
- Sweden - King Gustav V of Sweden (1907 - 1950).
- United Kingdom - King George V of the United Kingdom (1910 - 1936).
- United States - Warren Gamaliel Harding, President of the United States (1921 - 1923).

University of London

home to the university's central administrative offices and its library]] The University of London is a federation of colleges and institutes which together constitute one of the world's largest universities. Approximately 5 percent of all UK students attend one of its affiliated schools, which include some of the most prestigious places of study in the world. Twelve universities in England, several in Canada and many in other Commonwealth countries (notably in East Africa) began life as associate colleges of the university, offering its "external" degrees under licence. By the 1970s almost all of these colleges had achieved independence from the University of London, but in recent years this aspect of its work has revived due to the globalisation of the higher education market, and an increasing number of overseas academic institutes are once again offering University of London diplomas and degrees. The main offices of the University of London are at Senate House in Bloomsbury, which includes a substantial library and the official residence of the Chancellor (at present Princess Anne, the Princess Royal, who succeeded her grandmother Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother in the largely ceremonial post). Founded in 1836, the University at first comprised just two colleges, University College London (UCL), which did not apply religious tests to its students, and King's College London (KCL), which, like other English universities at that time, admitted only members of the Church of England. The University, which was the first in the UK to admit women students on equal terms with men, now is a federal body made up of 31 highly autonomous affiliates (18 colleges and 13 institutes), most of them widely scattered across Greater London, though it has affiliates in the neighbouring county of Kent, in Scotland, and in Paris. Besides UCL and King's, the most famous colleges are Imperial College London, the London School of Economics (LSE), St George's, University of London (SGUL), Queen Mary (QMUL), Royal Holloway (RHUL), Goldsmiths College, and the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS). For most practical purposes, ranging from admission of students to negotiating funding from the government, the 18 constituent colleges are treated as individual universities. Within the University federation they are known as Recognised Bodies, with the authority to examine students and have the University award them degrees. One of the conditions of membership of the University of London federation is that colleges do not award degrees of their own. At present only Imperial College and UCL have this power, but have yet to use it. On several occasions over the past decades, UCL, King's and LSE have all used the threat of departure from the federation in negotiations for more powers within it, but on 9 December 2005 Imperial College became the first college to make a formal decision to leave. Its Council announced that it was beginning negotiations to withdraw from the University in time for its own centenary celebrations, and in order to be able to award its own degrees. The 13 institutes, or Listed Bodies, offer courses leading to degrees that are both examined and awarded by the University of London . The Athlone Press was the publishing house of the University of London between 1949 and 1979 [http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=1671&inst_id=14]. 1979 1979 1979 1979 1979 1979 1979

Colleges and institutions

The colleges and institutes of the University are, as of December 2005:

Recognised bodies

- Birkbeck, University of London, which specializes in part-time courses for working people
- Goldsmiths College
- Heythrop College, a Catholic theological college
- Imperial College London, incorporating St Mary's Hospital Medical School, the National Heart and Lung Institute, Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School, the Royal Postgraduate Medical School, the former Wye College (now called Imperial College at Wye), and the Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology
- the Institute of Cancer Research
- the Institute of Education
- King's College London (KCL), incorporating the Institute of Psychiatry and The Guy's, King's and St Thomas's School of Medicine
- the London Business School
- the London School of Economics (LSE)
- the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
- Queen Mary, University of London (QMUL), incorporating Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry
- the Royal Academy of Music
- Royal Holloway, University of London (RHUL)
- the Royal Veterinary College
- the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), with which the London School of Jewish Studies (formerly Jews' College) is associated
- the School of Pharmacy
- University College London (UCL), including such pioneering departments as the Bartlett School of Architecture (founded 1841) and the Slade School of Fine Art (founded 1871) and the Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, and also incorporating several formerly separate bodies, notably the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (SSEES), the Royal Free and University College Medical School, the Institute of Archaeology, the Eastman Dental Institute, the Institute of Child Health (Great Ormond St Hospital), the Institute of Neurology, the Institute of Ophthalmology, the Institute of Laryngology and Otology, the Institute of Orthopaedics, the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital and the Mullard Space Science Laboratory. The Institute of Cancer Sciences and London Centre for Nanotechnology are currently under construction.
- St George's Hospital Medical School

Colleges no longer in existence

Some colleges of the University of London have been amalgamated into larger colleges or have had their work transferred elsewhere. These include
- Bedford College - Inner Circle Regent's Park
- Chelsea College of Science and Technology - Hortensia Road, Chelsea
- Queen Elizabeth College - Campden Hill Road, Kensington
- Westfield College - Kidderpore Avenue, Hampstead

Listed bodies

- the University of London Institute in Paris, formerly known as the British Institute in Paris
- the Courtauld Institute of Art
- the School of Advanced Study comprising the following institutes:
- the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
- the Institute of Classical Studies
- the Institute of Commonwealth Studies
- the Institute of English Studies (including the Centre for Manuscript and Print Studies),
- the Institute of Germanic & Romance Studies
- the Institute of Historical Research
- the Institute of Musical Studies
- the Institute of Philosophy
- the Institute for the Study of the Americas
- the Warburg Institute
- the University Marine Biological Station, Millport

Notable alumni and attendees

Notable persons who graduated from or otherwise attended the University include:
- Christopher Addison
- Akbar S. Ahmed
- Richard Aldington
- Mulk Raj Anand
- David Attenborough
- Alfred Austin
- Thomas John Barnardo
- Alexander Graham Bell
- Arnold Bennett
- William Henry Bragg
- Raymond Briggs
- Robert Browning
- John Cale
- Alan Campbell
- William Benjamin Carpenter
- Graham Chapman
- G.K. Chesterton
- Arthur C. Clarke
- Coldplay members Chris Martin, William Champion, and Johnny Buckland
- Alex Comfort
- Bernard Cornwell
- Francis Crick
- Robert William Dale
- Hugh Dalton
- Valerie Davey
- Louis Essen
- John Ambrose Fleming
- Denis Follows
- Michael Foster
- Mohandas Gandhi
- Greer Garson
- Ann Granger
- Peter Griffiths
- Peter Hain
- Michael Halliday
- Farrer Herschell, 1st Baron Herschell
- Chaim Herzog
- Damien Hirst
- Thomas Hodgkin
- Thomas Henry Huxley
- Charles Ingram
- Hirobumi Ito
- Mick Jagger
- George Jessel
- William Stanley Jevons
- Nancy Johnson
- Tessa Jowell
- William Joyce
- Charles K. Kao
- Boris Karloff
- John F. Kennedy
- Jomo Kenyatta
- Junichiro Koizumi
- David Lammy
- Emily Lau
- Ambrose Lau Hon-chuen
- Bernard Lewis
- Joseph Lister
- Bronislaw Malinowski
- Nelson Mandela
- Karl Mannheim
- Brian May
- Desmond Morton
- Charles F. Newcombe
- Bill O'Reilly
- Humphry Osmond
- Talcott Parsons
- Lynden Pindling
- Enoch Powell
- Romano Prodi
- B. Carroll Reece
- Paul Robeson
- David Rohl
- Ernest Satow
- John Ralston Saul
- Elizabeth Smart
- Stephen Smith
- Robert Sobukwe
- George Soros
- Marie Stopes
- Aung San Suu Kyi
- Goh Keng Swee
- Robert Swinhoe
- Larry Trask
- Suzanne Tremblay
- Pierre Trudeau
- Desmond Tutu
- Henry Wace
- Sidney Webb
- H. G. Wells
- David Wilson
- Robert Winston
- Fei Xiaotong

Heads of State/Heads of Government

- Hirobumi Ito (1841-1909) - Prime Minister of Japan, 1885-1888, 1892-1896, 1898, 1900-1901
- Harmodio Arias (1886-1962) - President of Panama,1932-1936
- Oscar Arias (b. 1941) - President of Costa Rica and Nobel Prize Winner
- Pedro Gerardo Beltrán Espanto (1897-1979) - Prime Minister of Peru, 1959-1961
- Errol Walton Barrow (1920-1987) - Prime Minister of Barbados, 1962-1966, 1966-1976, 1986-1987
- Marek Belka (b. 1952) - Prime Minister of Poland, 2004-present
- Heinrich Brüning (1885-1970) - Chancellor of Germany, 1930-1932
- Kim Campbell (b. 1947) - Prime Minister of Canada, June-November 1993
- Eugenia Charles (b. 1919) - Prime Minister of Dominica, 1980-1995
- John Compton (b. 1926) - Premier of Saint Lucia, 1964-1979, and Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, February-July 1979 & 1982-1996
- Sher Bahadur Deuba (b. 1943) - Prime Minister of Nepal, 1995-1997, 2001-2002, 2004-present
- Chaim Herzog (חיים הרצוג)‎ (b. 1918) -the sixth President of Israel (1983 - 1993)
- Tuanku Jaafar (b. 1922) - Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia, 1994-1999
- John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) - President of the U.S.A. 1961-1963
- Jomo Kenyatta (1891-1978) - First President of Kenya, 1964-1978
- Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) - President of Kenya, 2002-present
- Thanin Kraivichien (b. 1927) - Prime Minister of Thailand, 1976-1977
- Yu Kuo-Hwa (1914-2000) - Premier of Taiwan, 1984-1989
- Hilla Limann (1934-1998) - President of Ghana, 1979-1981
- Alfonso López Pumarejo - President of Colombia, 1934-1938, 1942-1945
- Michael Manley (1924-1997) - Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1972-1980, 1989-1992
- Kamisese Mara (1920-2004) - Prime Minister of Fiji 1970-1992, President of Fiji 1994-2000
- Margrethe II of Denmark (b. 1940) - Queen of Denmark, 1972-present
- Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) - First President of Ghana, 1960-1966
- Percival Patterson (b. 1935) - Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1992-present
- Romano Prodi (b. 1939) - Prime Minister of Italy, 1996-1998 and President of the European Commission, 1999-present
- Junichiro Koizumi (b. 1942) - Prime Minister of Japan, 2001-
- Navinchandra Ramgoolam (b. 1947) - Prime Minister of Mauritius, 1995-2000
- Veerasainy Ringadoo (1920-2000) - First President of Mauritius, March-June 1992
- Moshe Sharett (1894-1965) - Prime Minister of Israel, 1953-1955
- Constantine Simitis (b. 1936) - Prime Minister of Greece, 1996-2004
- Anote Tong (b. 1952) - President of Kiribati, 2003-present
- Pierre Trudeau (1919-2000) - Prime Minister of Canada, 1968-1979, 1980-1984

Other prominent alumni

- Sir Roy Allen (economist and mathematician)
- Sir David Attenborough (TV presenter)
- Cherie Booth QC (wife of Tony Blair)
- Ed Broadbent (Canadian socialist opposition leader)
- Ralph Bunche (Nobel prize winner)
- Ronald Coase (Nobel prize winner)
- Benjamin Cohen (businessman and writer)
- Edwina Currie (politician, author, radio presenter)
- Hugh Dalton (former Chancellor of the Exchequer)
- Frank Dobson (former Health Secretary)
- Marc Grossman (U.S. Under Secretary of State)
- Haakon Magnus (crown prince of Norway)
- Margaret Hodge (British MP, Minister for Children)
- Robert E. Hunter (former U.S. Ambassador to NATO)
- Mick Jagger (musician)
- Anthony Kennedy (U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice)
- Robert Kilroy-Silk (TV presenter)
- Mervyn King (Governor of the Bank of England)
- Bernard Levin (journalist)
- Sir Arthur Lewis (Nobel prize winner)
- John Anthony McGuckin (scholar)
- Merton Miller (Nobel prize winner)
- Daniel Patrick Moynihan (former U.S. Senator)
- Robert Mundell (Nobel prize winner)
- Philip Noel-Baker (Nobel prize winner)
- Jules O'Riordan, aka Judge Jules, (radio 1 DJ)
- Jacques Parizeau (Quebec separatist leader)
- Alice Paul (American suffragist)
- Sir Karl Popper (philosopher)
- Robert Rubin (former U.S. Treasury Secretary)
- Charles Saatchi (founder, Saatchi and Saatchi)
- Maurice Saatchi (founder, Saatchi and Saatchi)
- Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, aka Carlos the Jackal, (terrorist)

Some statistics

- Student population: approx. 125,000

External links

- [http://www.lon.ac.uk/ University of London website]
- [http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/ University of London External Programme]
- London ja:ロンドン大学

1970

1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday. 1970 is the Unix epoch time.

Events

January-February

- January 1 - Construction begins on Arcosanti, by Paolo Soleri, in Mayer, Arizona, located 65 miles north of Phoenix, Arizona.
- January 1 - Unix epoch at 00:00:00 UTC.
- January 12 - Biafra capitulates, ending the Nigerian civil war.
- January 15 - After a 32-month fight for independence from Nigeria, Biafran forces under General Effiong formally surrender to General Yakubu Gowon.
- January 15 - Muammar al-Qaddafi is proclaimed premier of Libya.
- January 16 - Buckminster Fuller receives the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects.
- February 11 - Launch of Japan's first satellite Osumi with a Lamba-4 Rocket.
- February 17 - MacDonald family massacre at Fort Bragg, North Carolina - Jeffrey MacDonald kills his wife and children and tries to claim that "hippies" did it

March

- March 1 - Rhodesia severs its last tie with the British crown and declares itself a racially segregated republic.
- March 4 - Nigerian Francis Okechukwu Ohanyido, Poet/Philosopher born in Jos.
- March 5 - A nuclear non-proliferation treaty goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations.
- March 11 - Henry "Dickie" Marrow is murdered in a violent hate crime in Oxford, N.C..
- March 16 - The Expo '70 world's fair opens in Suita, Osaka, Japan.
- March 16 - Publication of complete New English Bible.
- March 16 - Birth of Stephen Martin.
- March 17 - My Lai massacre: The United States Army charges 14 officers with suppressing information related to the incident.
- March 18 - Lon Nol ousts Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia.
- March 18 - Post Office strike in USA - 210,000 out of 750,000 US postal employees walk out. President Nixon assigns military units to New York City post offices. Strike lasts two weeks.
- March 21 The first Earth Day proclamation is issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto.
- March 25 - The Concorde makes its 1st supersonic flight (700 mph /1,127 km/h).
- March 31 - Explorer I spacefract re-enters atmosphere, after twelve years in orbit.

April

- April 1 - President Richard Nixon signs the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act into law banning cigarette television advertisements in the United States starting on January 1, 1971.
- April 1 - American Motors introduces the Gremlin.
- April 10 - Paul McCartney announces that the Beatles have disbanded.
- April 11 - US spaceflight Apollo 13 launches for the moon, carrying James Lovell, Fred Haise, and Jack Swigert. On April 13, an oxygen tank in the spacecraft explodes, forcing the crew to abort the mission. The crew returns to earth safely on April 17
- April 22 - First Earth Day celebrated.
- April 29 - U.S. invades Cambodia to hunt out Viet Cong. Massive protests against the war continue in the U.S.

May-June

Viet Cong
- May 4 - The Kent State shootings: Four students at Kent State University in Ohio are killed and 9 wounded by National Guardsmen at a demonstration protesting against the incursion into Cambodia.
- May 5 - Earthquake in Yungay, Peru below Hauscaran Mountain buries the city
- May 6 - Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney are dismissed as members of the Irish Government due to accusations of their involvement in a plot to import arms for use in Northern Ireland.
- May 9 - 100,000 people demonstrate in Washington DC against the Vietnam War.
- May 14 - Ulrike Meinhof helps Andreas Baader escape.
- May 17 - Thor Heyerdahl sets sail from Morocco on the papyrus boat Ra II to sail the Atlantic Ocean.
- May 26 - The Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 becomes the first commercial transport to exceed Mach 2.
- May 27 - British expedition climbs south face of Annapurna I.
- May 31 - The Ancash earthquake causes a landslide that buries the town of Yungay, Peru; more than 47,000 people are killed.
- June 2 - Norway announces that it has rich oil deposits off its North Sea coast.
- June 4 - Tonga gains independence from the United Kingdom.
- June 10 - President Nixon signed a measure lowering the voting age to 18.
- June 11 - The United States gets its first female Generals: Anna Mae Hays and Elizabeth P. Hoisington.
- June 18 - Edward Heath is elected Prime Minister of United Kingdom.
- June 21 - Brazil defeats Italy 4-1 to win the Football World Cup 1970
- June 24 - The United States Senate repeals the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
- June 28 - US ground troops withdraw from Cambodia.

July-August

- July 4 - Chartered Dan-Air Comet crashes into mountains north of Barcelona - at least 112 dead.
- July 11 - The first tunnel under the Pyrenees links the Basque towns of Aranoutes and Biesma.
- July 21 - Aswan High Dam in Egypt completed.
- July 30 - Damages awarded to Thalidomide victims,
- August 7 - Harold Haley, Marin County Superior Court Judge taken hostage and murdered in an effort to free George Jackson from police custody.
- August 17-18 - US sinks 418 containers of nerve gas into the Gulf Stream near the Bahamas
- August 17 - Venera program: Venera 7 is launched. It will later becomes the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from another planet.
- August 26- The Women's Strike For Equality takes place down Fifth Avenue in New York City.
- August 26- August 30- The Isle of Wight Festival 1970 takes place on East Afton Farm off the coast of England. 600,000 people attend the largest rock festival of all time. Artists include Jimi Hendrix, The Who, The Doors, Chicago, Richie Havens, John Sebastian, Joan Baez, Ten Years After, Emerson Lake & Palmer and Jethro Tull.

September

- September 1 - Assassination attempt against king Hussein of Jordan
- September 3-6 - Israeli forces fight Palestinian guerillas in southern Lebanon.
- September 5 - Vietnam War: Operation Jefferson Glenn begins - The United States 101st Airborne Division and the South Vietnamese 1st Infantry Division initiate a new operation in Thua Thien Province (operation ends in October 1971).
- September 7 - An anti-war rally is held at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, attended by John Kerry, Jane Fonda and Donald Sutherland.
- September 7 - Fighting between Arabic guerillas and government forces in Amman, Jordan
- September 8-10 - Jordanian government and Palestinian guerillas make truces that keep breaking.
- September 9 – Guinea recognizes East Germany.
- September 10 – Cambodian government forces break the blockage around Kompong Tho after a 3-month siege.
- September 11 - The Ford Pinto is introduced.
- September 13 - First running of the New York City Marathon.
- September 15 - King Hussein of Jordan forms a military government with Muhammad Daoud as the prime minister.
- September 18 - Jimi Hendrix dies of barbiturate overdose in London
- September 20 - End of term for Ismail Nasiruddin Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Zainal Abidin III as the 4th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- September 20 - Syrian armored forces cross Jordanian border.
- September 20-21 - Luna 16 lands on the Moon and lifts off the day later with samples. Lands on Earth September 24.
- September 21 - Palestinian armored forces reinforce Palestinian guerillas in Irbidi, Jordan.
- September 21 - Tuanku Al-Mutassimu Billahi Muhibbudin Sultan Abdul Halim Al-Muadzam Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Badlishah, Sultan of Kedah becomes the 5th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- September 26 - Laguna Fire starts in San Diego County burning 175,425 acres (710 km²).
- September 27 - Richard Nixon begins a tour in Europe and visits Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain, United Kingdom and Ireland.
- September 28 - Gamal Abdal Nasser dies - vice president Anwar Sadat is named temporary president of Egypt.
- September 29 - US Congress gives president Richard Nixon authority to sell arms to Israel.
- September 29 - In Berlin, Baader-Meinhof Gang members rob three banks, loot totaling over DM200.000.

October

- October 2 - Wichita State University loses most of its football team in a plane crash.
- October 3 - In Lebanon, government of the prime minister Rashid Karami resigns.
- October 4 - In Bolivia, army commander general Rogelio Miranda and group of officers rebel and demand resignation of the president Alfredo Ovando Candía – president fires him.
- October 4 - Janis Joplin dies of a heroin overdose inside her hotel room in Los Angeles, California
- October 5 - Nixon's European tour ends.
- October 5 - The Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) kidnap James Cross in Montreal and demands release of all its imprisoned members. The next day the Canadian government announces it won't accept the demand - first stirrings of Quebec's October Crisis.
- October 6 - Bolivian president Alfredo Ovando Candía resigns – general Rogelio Miranda takes over but resigns soon after.
- October 6 - French president Georges Pompidou visits Soviet Union.
- October 7 - General Juan José Torres becomes the new president of Bolivia.
- October 7 - Anwar Sadat accepted as Egyptian president.
- October 8 - US foreign office announces that it renews its arms sales to Pakistan.
- October 8 - Soviet author Alexander Solzhenitsyn is awarded Nobel Prize for Literature.
- October 8 - Vietnam War: In Paris, a Communist delegation rejects US President Richard Nixon's October 7 peace proposal as "a maneuver to deceive world opinion."
- October 9 - The Khmer Republic is proclaimed in Cambodia.
- October 9 - Divorce law in Italy.
- October 10 - Fiji becomes independent.
- October 10 - October Crisis: In Montreal, Quebec, a national crisis hits Canada when Quebec Vice-Premier and Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte becomes the second statesman kidnapped by members of the FLQ terrorist group.
- October 11 - 11 French soldiers are killed in a shootout with rebels in Chad.
- October 12 - Vietnam War: US President Richard Nixon announces that the United States will withdraw 40,000 more troops before Christmas.
- October 13 - Canada and the People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations.
- October 13 - Saeb Salam's government forms in Lebanon.
- October 14 - Chinese nuclear test in Lop Nor.
- October 15 - In Egypt, referendum supports Anwar Sadat 90.04%.
- October 15 - 35 construction workers are killed when a section of the new West Gate Bridge in Melbourne collapses into the river below.
- October 16 - Canadian government declares state of emergency and outlaws Quebec Liberation Front.
- October 17 - Pierre Laporte is found killed in south of Montreal.
- October 17 - Cholera epidemic in Istanbul.
- October 17 - Anwar Sadat becomes officially president of Egypt.
- October 20 - Soviet Union launches Zond 8 lunar probe.
- October 20 - Algerian ex-minister Krim Belkacem is found strangled in his hotel room in Frankfurt.
- October 20 - Egyptian president Anwar Sadat names Mahmoud Fawzi as his prime minister.
- October 21 - US Air Force plane makes an emergency landing near Leninakan, Soviet Union. Soviets release the American officers, including two generals, November 10.
- October 22 - Chilean army commander Rene Schneider is shot in Santiago – government declares state of emergency. Schneider dies October 25.
- October 24 - Salvador Allende is elected President of Chile.
- October 26 - US and Soviet space researchers meet in Moscow.
- October 26 - Garry Trudeau's comic strip Doonesbury, debuts in approximately two dozen newspapers in the United States.
- October 28 - In Jordan, government of Ahmed Toukan resigns – next prime minister is Wasfi Al-Tal.
- October 28 - Cholera outbreak in eastern Slovakia – Hungary closes its border with Czechoslovakia.
- October 28 - Gary Gabelich drives the rocket-powered Blue Flame to an official world land speed record of 622.287 mph (1,001.452863 km/h) on the dry lake bed of the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. The record, the first above 1,000 km/h, stands for nearly 13 years.
- October 30 - In Vietnam, the worst monsoon to hit the area in six years causes large floods, kills 293, leaves 200,000 homeless and virtually halts the Vietnam War.

November

- November 1 - Fire destroys Le Cinq Sept dance hall in St. Laurent Du Pont, France – 144 dead.
- November 4 - Vietnam War: Vietnamization - The United States turns control of the air base in the Mekong Delta to South Vietnam. Genie "the Wild Child" discovered in her house at the age of 13 after being in complete isolation for 10 years with no language skills.
- November 4 - Social authorities in California, USA, take custody of Genie, a girl who had been kept in solitary confinement since her birth
- November 5 - Vietnam War: United States Military Assistance Command in Vietnam reports the lowest weekly American soldier death toll in five years (24 soldiers died that week, which was the fifth consecutive week the death toll was below 50; 431 were reported wounded that week, however).
- November 8 - Egypt, Sudan and Libya announce their intentions to form a federation.
- November 9 - Charles de Gaulle dies – he is buried November 13.
- November 9 - Soviet Union launches Luna 17.
- November 9 - Vietnam War: The Supreme Court of the United States votes 6 to 3 to not hear a case by the state of Massachusetts asking to allow the state the ability to enforce its law granting Massachusetts residents the right to refuse military service in an undeclared war.
- November 10 - Vietnam War: Vietnamization - For the first time in five years, an entire week ended with no reports of American combat fatalities in Southeast Asia.
- November 12 - Soviet author Andrei Amalrik sentenced for three years for anti-Soviet writings.
- November 12 - The Oregon Highway Division (now known as the Oregon Department of Transportation) is given the task of removing a rotting beached Grey whale, leading to the now infamous exploding whale incident.
- November 13 - Military coup in Syria – Hafez al-Assad takes the power.
- November 13 - 1970 Bhola cyclone: A 120-mph tropical cyclone hits the densely populated Ganges Delta region of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), killing an estimated 500,000 people (this is regarded as the 20th century's worst cyclone disaster).
- November 14 - fatal airplane accident in Wayne County, West Virginia, claims the lives of the entire Marshall University football team.
- November 17 - Vietnam War: Lieutenant William Calley goes on trial for the My Lai massacre.
- November 17 - Luna program: The Soviet Union lands Lunokhod 1 on Mare Imbrium (Sea of Rains) on the Moon. This is the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on another world and was released by the orbiting Luna 17 spacecraft.
- November 18 - US President Richard Nixon asks the U.S. Congress for US$155 million in supplemental aid for the Cambodian government (US$85 million was for military assistance in order to help prevent the overthrow of the government of Premier Lon Nol by the Khmer Rouge and North Vietnam).
- November 18 - United Nations Security Council demands that no government should recognize Rhodesia.
- November 19 - EEC prime minister meeting in Munich.
- November 21 - Syrian Prime Minister Hafez al-Assad forms a new government but retains the post of defense minister.
- November 21 - in Ethiopia, Eritrea Liberation Front kills an Ethiopian general.
- November 21 - Vietnam War: Operation Ivory Coast - A joint Air Force and Army team raids the Son Tay prison camp in an attempt to free American POWs thought to be held there (there were zero Americans killed, but the prisoners had already moved to another camp; All US POWs were moved to a handful of central prison complexes as a result of this raid).
- November 22 - Guinean president Sekou Toure accuses Portugal of an attack when hundreds of mercenaries land near capital Conakry. Guinean army repels the landing attempts in November 23-24. November 25-29 UN delegation arrives to investigate the situation. In December 4 UN announces that Portuguese navy and army units are responsible.
- November 25 - In Japan, world-famous author and Tatenokai militia leader Yukio Mishima and his followers take over Inchigaya HQ of the Japan Self-Defense Forces and take general Kanetoshi Mashita hostage. When Mishima's speech fails to sway public opinion towards his right-wing political beliefs, he commits seppuku.
- November 26 - East Pakistan leader sheik Mujibur Rahman accuses central government of negligence in catastrophe relief.
- November 26 - Pope Paul VI begins an Asian tour.
- November 27 - Bolivian artist Benjamin Mendoza tries to assassinate Paul VI during pope's visit in Manila.

December

- December 1 - Italian House of Representatives accepts the divorce law.
- December 1 - Ethiopia recognizes People's Republic of China.
- December 1 - Basque ETA kidnaps West German Eugen Beihl in San Sebastian.
- December 1 - Luis Echeverría Álvarez becomes president of Mexico.
- December 2 - The United States Environmental Protection Agency begins operations.
- December 3 - October Crisis: In Montreal, Quebec, kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross is released by the Front de Libération du Québec terrorist group after being held hostage for 60 days. Police negotiate his release and in return the Government of Canada grants five terrorists from the FLQ's Chenier Cell their request for safe passage to Cuba.
- December 3 - Burgos Trial - In Burgos, Spain, begins a trial against 16 Basques accused of terrorism.
- December 4 - Spanish government declares a three-month martial law in Basque county of Guipuzco due to strikes and demonstrations.
- December 5 - Asian and Australian tour of Paul VI ends.
- December 7 - Giovanni Enrico Bucher, Swiss ambassador to Brazil, is kidnapped in Rio de Janeiro; kidnappers demand release of 70 political prisoners.
- December 7 - UN general assembly supports the isolation of South Africa due to its apartheid policies.
- December 7 - During his visit to the Polish capital, German chancellor Willy Brandt goes down on his knees in front of a monument for the victims in the ghetto of Warsaw.
- December 12 - Landslide in western Colombia – over 200 dead.
- December 13 - Government of Poland announces increases in the prize of food. Riots and looting erupt until a bloody confrontation between the rioters against army and the police in December 15. Martial law December 17-22. December 23 the government will freeze the food prizes for two years.
- December 15 - The USSR's Venera 7 becomes the first spacecraft to land successfully on Venus and transmit data back to earth
- December 16 - Ethiopian government declares state of emergency in the county of Eritrea due to activities of Eritrea Liberation Front.
- December 20 - General secretary of the communist part of Poland, Wladyslaw Gomulka, resigns – Edward Gierek takes his place.
- December 20 - Egyptian delegation leaves for Moscow to ask for economic and military aid.
- December 21 - Elvis Presley pays an unscheduled call on Richard Nixon in the Oval Office, volunteering to help with law enforcement problems.
- December 22 - Libyan revolutionary council declares that it will nationalize all foreign banks in the country.
- December 22 - Franz Stangl, the ex-commander of Treblinka is sentenced to life imprisonment.
- December 23 - Bolivian government releases Regis Debray.
- December 25 - ETA releases Eugen Beihl.
- December 27 - Indian president declares new elections.
- December 28 - Burgos Trial – three Basques are sentenced to death (three twice), others sentenced for 12-62 years and one released. December 30 Franco commutes the death sentences to 30 years in prison.
- December 28 - Suspects of killing Pierre Laporte, Jacques & Paul Rose and Francis Sunard, are arrested near Montreal.
- December 30 - In Viscaya Basque county 15.000 goes to strike to protest Burgos trial death sentences.

Unknown date

- The first Regional Technical Colleges open in Ireland.
- Disappearance of Sada Abe, Japanese former prostitute and later actress.
- Discovery in England of the Sweet Track, the World's oldest engineered roadway.

Births

January-March

- January 6 - Gabrielle Reece, American volleyball player and model
- January 13 - Keith Coogan, American actor
- January 13 - Marco Pantani, Italian cyclist (d. 2004)
- January 15 - Shane McMahon, American Wrestler
- January 17 - Jeremy Roenick, American hockey player
- January 17 - Genndy Tartakovsky Russian animator
- January 22 - Alex Ross, American comic artist
- January 29 - Heather Graham, American actress
- January 29 - Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore, Indian shooter
- January 31 - Minnie Driver, English actress
- February 24 - Jeff Garcia, American football player
- March 8 - Jason Elam, American football player
- March 18 - Queen Latifah, American rapper, record producer, and actress
- March 22 - Leontien van Moorsel, Dutch cyclist
- March 24 - Lara Flynn Boyle, American actress
- March 24 - Sharon Corr, Irish musician (The Corrs)
- March 27 - Mariah Carey, American singer
- March 27 - Leila Pahlavi, Iranian princess (d. 2001)
- March 28 - Vince Vaughn, American actor, writer, and producer

April-May

- April 4 - Barry Pepper, Canadian actor
- April 12 - Nick Hexum, American singer and guitarist
- April 13 - Rick Schroeder, American actor
- April 18 - Greg Eklund, American drummer (Everclear)
- April 21 - Nicole Sullivan, American actress, comedienne, and writer
- April 22 - Regine Velasquez, Filipina singer, actress, model, record producer, and entrepreneur
- April 25 - Jason Lee, American skateboarder and actor
- April 27 - Kylie Travis, English-born actress and model
- April 29 - Andre Agassi, American tennis player
- April 29 - Uma Thurman, American actress
- May 12 - Mike Weir, Canadian golfer
- May 15 - Rod Smith, American football player
- May 16 - Gabriela Sabatini, Argentine tennis player
- May 18 - Tina Fey, American writer, comedienne, and actress
- May 22 - Naomi Campbell, English model and actress
- May 24 - Jeff Zgonina, American football player
- May 25 - Jamie Kennedy, American actor and comedian
- May 26 - Nobuhiro Watsuki, Japanese cartoonist
- May 27 - Joseph Fiennes, English actor

June-July

- June 6 - Anthony Norris, American professional wrestler
- June 8 - Kelli Williams, American actress
- June 13 - Mikael Ljungberg, Swedish wrestler (d. 2004)
- June 16 - Phil Mickelson, American golfer
- June 19 - Quincy Watts, American athlete
- June 20 - Russell Garcia, British field hockey player
- June 20 - Moulay Rachid, Prince of Morocco
- June 25 - Lucy Benjamin, British actress
- June 26 - Patrick Norton, American writer and television host
- June 26 - Chris O'Donnell, American actor
- June 27 - Jim Edmonds, baseball player
- June 27 - Vitamin C, American singer
- July 3 - Teemu Selanne, Finnish hockey player
- July 3 - Shawnee Smith, American actress
- July 3 - Yona Kosashvili, chess player
- July 5 - Mac Dre, American rapper (d. 2004)
- July 8 - Beck, American singer
- July 11 - Saj Karim, British politician
- July 23 - Charisma Carpenter, American actress
- July 23 - Thea Dorn, German writer

August-September

- August 2 - Tony Amonte, American hockey player
- August 6 - M. Night Shyamalan, Indian film director, writer, producer, and actor
- August 13 - Alan Shearer, English footballer
- August 17 - Jim Courier, American tennis player
- August 18 - Malcolm-Jamal Warner, American actor
- August 20 - John Carmack, American computer game programmer
- August 21 - Erik Dekker, Dutch professional cyclist
- August 23 - Jay Mohr, American actor and comedian
- August 25 - Claudia Schiffer, German model
- August 27 - Jim Thome, baseball player
- August 29 - Jacco Eltingh, Dutch tennis player
- August 31 - Deborah Gibson, American singer
- September 4 - Daisy Dee, Dutch singer and actress
- September 8 - Latrell Sprewell, American basketball player
- September 9 - Macy Gray, American singer
- September 10 - Phaswane Mpe, South African writer (d. 2004)
- September 14 - Craig Montoya, American musician (Everclear)
- September 18 - Darren Gough, English cricketer
- September 19 - Takanori Nishikawa, Japanese singer
- September 22 - Mike Matheny, baseball player
- September 23 - Ani DiFranco, American mus

Kenya

The Republic of Kenya, or Kenya (), is a country in East Africa. It borders Ethiopia on the north, Somalia on the east, Tanzania on the south, Uganda on the west, and Sudan on the northwest, with the Indian Ocean on the southeast.

History

Main article: History of Kenya Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenya's Lake Turkana indicate that hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus lived in Kenya from 2.6 million years ago.

Colonial history

The colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of a German protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890. This followed the building of the Kenya-Uganda railway passing through the country. Although this was also resisted by some tribes, notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel arap Samoei for ten years between 1895 to 1905, these did not stop the British building the railway. It is believed that the Nandi were the first tribe to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway. During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee. By the 1930's, approximately 30,000 settlers lived in the area and were offered undue political powers because of their effects on the economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kǐkǔyǔ tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms (but the land belonged to the ethnic group), and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled. From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King's African Rifles. In January 1953, Major General Hinde was appointed as director of counter-insurgency operations. The situation did not improve for lack of intelligence, so General Sir George Erskine was appointed commander-in-chief of the colony's armed forces in May 1953, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill. The capture of Warǔhiǔ Itote (General China) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954 after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War Council. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege, and the occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. May 1953 also saw the Home Guard officially recognized as a branch of the Security Forces. The Home Guard formed the core of the government's anti-Mau Mau strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces like the British Army and King's African Rifles. By the end of the emergency the Home Guard had killed no fewer than 4,686 Mau Mau, amounting to 42% of the total insurgents. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive.

Post-colonial history

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to "moderate" African rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta, that formed a government shortly before Kenya became independent on 12th December 1963. A year later, Kenyatta became Kenya's first president. At Kenyatta's death in 1978, Daniel arap Moi became President. Daniel arap Moi retained the Presidency, being unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 (snap elections) and 1988, all of which were held under the single party constitution. The 1983 elections were held an year early, and were a direct result of an abortive military coup attempt on 01/08/1982. The abortive coup was masterminded by a lowly ranked Airforce serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka and was staged mainly by enlisted men in the Airforce. The attempt was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civillian casualties. This event led to the disbanding of the entire Airforce and a large number of it's former members were either dismissed or court-martialled. The election held in 1988 saw the advent of the infamous mlolongo (queueing) system where voters were supposed to line up behind their favourite candidates instead of secret ballot. This was seen as the climax of a very undiplomatic regime and it led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clauses, including the one allowing only one political party were changed in the following years. In democratic but flawed multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, Daniel arap Moi won re-election. In 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running, and Mwai Kǐbakǐ, running for the opposition coalition "National Rainbow Coalition" — NARC, was elected President. The elections, judged free and fair by local and international observers, marked a turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution.

Political Structure

Main article: Politics of Kenya Politics of Kenya Kenya is a republic; the President of Kenya is both the chief of state and the head of government. Kenya has a unicameral National Assembly consisting of 210 members elected to a term of up to five years from single-member constituencies, plus 12 members nominated by political parties on a proportional representation basis. The president appoints the vice president and cabinet members from among those elected to the National Assembly. The attorney general and the speaker are ex officio members of the Assembly. The judiciary is headed by a High Court, consisting of a chief justice and High Court judges, and judges of Kenya's Court of Appeal (no associate judges), all appointed by the president. Kenya has had a multi-party system since 1991 via constitutional amendment, with politicians frequently "crossing the floor" or setting up new political parties and coalitions to achieve their political aims. In December 2002, Kenya held democratic and open elections and elected Mwai Kǐbakǐ as president from the National Alliance Party of Kenya (NAK) as president. The NAK and the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) formed the NARC coalition that currently governs Kenya. The coalition consists of some of the brightest minds in Kenya such as Dr. Kilemi Mwiria, who received his doctorate in Education from Stanford University. He was also the former Secretary General of Universities Academic Staff Union (UASU), Kenya's first lecturers' union. Kenya is in the process of rewriting its post-colonial constitution and its subsequent amendments that gave the president nearly unlimited powers and immunity from the law accounting for many of Kenya's current problems with corruption. Constitutional reform is being delayed by disagreement amongst the coalition members. The right-leaning NAK favours a centralized Presidential system, while the left leaning LDP -- led by Raila Odinga& Kalonzo Musyoka -- favor a parliamentary system with Prime Minister. After a long-lasting public debate, the people of Kenya rejected the government-supported draft constitution with a 57-43 majority in the historical November 21st referendum.Research by independent observer groups indicated that the majority of voters were oblivious of the proposed constitution's content owing largely to the tribal voting lines that leaders propagated and partly to a failed civic education program. The president never actively involved himself in the referendum process and instead insisted on letting Kenyans make an independent decision free from political influence. The defeat however created a political vacuum, as Kibaki responded to calls from the Orange Democratic Movement (supporters of the NO vote) for his resignation, by dissolving his cabinet. The president reconstituted his cabinet in a televised broadcast on 7th December. His new line up excluded members who had opposed the constitution in the referendum but retained some allies from the official opposition party KANU and loyalists, notably absent was former Transport minister Chris Murungaru who has been accused of corruption in the past. The reshuffle has drawn mixed reactions from different quarters with a number of nominees rejecting their appointments citing party policy and the opinion of constituents.

Administrative Structure

Raila Odinga Local administration is divided among eight provinces each headed by a presidentially appointed Provincial Commissioner. The provinces (Mkoa) are subdivided into districts (Wilaya) which are then subdivided into divisions (Tarafa). The divison is then subdivided into location (Mtaa) and then sub location (Kijiji). The Nairobi Area
- has special status and is not included in any district or province. The government supervises administration of districts and provinces, which are:
- Central
- Coast
- Eastern
- Nairobi Area
-
- North Eastern
- Nyanza
- Rift Valley
- Western Western

Geography

Kenya covers an area of 582,650 km². From the coast on the Indian Ocean the Low plains rise to central highlands. The highlands are bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west. The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya: Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 m and is also the site of glaciers. Climate varies from tropical along the coast to arid in interior. arid arid

Economy

Main article: Economy of Kenya Kenya's main economic strengths include tourism and agriculture. The economy is only now beginning to show some growth after years of stagnation. Some argue that this slow economic growth is because of poor management and uneven commitment to reform; others insist that it is due to falling commodity prices and poor access to Western markets. In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative growth in the early 1990s. One of the unintended consequence of freeing foreign exchange control was that it allowed a gold-and-diamond export scam in which the Kenyan government lost over 600 million US dollars. This resulted in a weak currency which hindered economic improvement. Kenya's GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996, and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed in 1997–1999 however. Political violence—namely the bombing of the U.S. Embassy by Al Qaeda in 1998—damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program lapsed. A new economic team was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the civil service, and curb corruption, but wary donors continue to question the government's commitment to western establishment ideas of sound economic policy. Considered by some to be long-term barriers to development are: electricity shortages, the government's continued and allegedly inefficient dominance of key sectors, corruption, the foreign debt burden, unstable international commodity prices, poor communication infrastructure and the effects of HIV/AIDS, which is having its effect on the most productive group of the population. The effects of HIV/AIDS has largely offset the previous high population growth which was caused by a high birth rate and reduced infant mortality due to better health care. Chief among Kenya's exports are: flowers (horticulture), fruits and Vegetables, tea, and coffee. Another key foreign exchange earner is tourism. tourism

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Kenya Kenya is a country of great ethnic diversity. Tension between the various groups accounts for many of Kenya's problems. During the early 1990s, clashes killed thousands and left tens of thousands homeless. Ethnically split opposition groups allowed the regime of Daniel arap Moi, in power from 1978 until 2002, to be re-elected for four terms, with the election in 1997 being marred by violence and fraud. Ethnic groups: Kĩkũyũ 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 15%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Ameru 6%, other African 12%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1% Religious affiliation: Various Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 28%, Muslim 6%, Traditional Religions 22%. Others include Hinduism, Jainism & the Bahá'í Faith. See also: List of cities in Kenya, Maasai. Maasai

Culture

Main article: Culture of Kenya
- List of cities in Kenya
- List of Kenyans
- List of writers from Kenya
- Music of Kenya
- National parks (Kenya)

Sports

Kenya is active in several sports, among them football (soccer), cricket, boxing and many others. But the country is chiefly known for its dominance in middle-distance and long-distance athletics. Kenya has regularly produced Olympic and Commonwealth Games champions at various distances, especially the 800 m, the 1,500 m, the 3,000 m steeplechase, the 5000 m and the 10,000 m races. Kenyan athletes continue to dominate the world of distance running, although competition from Morocco and Ethiopia has somewhat reduced this trend. The Marathon world record holder, Paul Tergat, and the current women's Boston Marathon champion, Catherine Ndereba, are the among the best-known and most respected athletes in Kenya. A retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion, Kipchoge Keino, is Kenya's most famous sportsman. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and Qatar. The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the USA.

External links

Government
- [http://www.communication.go.ke/ Government Spokeperson]Office of Government Spokesperson of the Republic of Kenya.
- [http://www.kenya.go.ke/ Government of Kenya] Official site
- [http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/ State House Kenya] Official site State House, Kenya.
- [http://www.magicalkenya.com/ Kenya Tourism Board (Magical Kenya)] Official travel and tourism guide.
- [http://www.centralbank.go.ke/ Central Bank of Kenya] Currency exchange rates official site
- [http://www.investmentkenya.com/ Kenya Investment Authority] Provides information on investing.
- [http://www.kenya-airways.com/ Kenya Airways] Main Kenyan airline.
- [http://www.kenyaairports.com/ Kenya Airports Authority] Information on Kenyan Airports
- [http://www.kpa.co.ke/ Kenya Ports Authority] Information on Kenyan sea ports News
- [http://www.kbc.co.ke/ Kenya Broadcasting Corporation] State run media organization
- [http://www.nationmedia.com/ Daily Nation Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.eastandard.net/ The Standard Online] Local independent newspaper
- [http://www.kenya-news.com Kenya News] The Top headlines from the major Kenyan newspapers. Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1024563.stm BBC - Country profile: Kenya]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ke.html CIA World Factbook - Kenya]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ke/ US State Department - Kenya] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports Directories
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Kenya.html Columbia University Libraries - Kenya] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Kenya/ Open Directory Project - Kenya] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/kenya.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Kenya] directory category
- Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Peace and Security Council zh-min-nan:Kenya ko:케냐 ms:Kenya ja:ケニア simple:Kenya th:ประเทศเคนยา

Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania in Swahili), or Tanzania, is a country on the east coast of east Africa. It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda on the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique on the south. To the east it borders the Indian Ocean. The country is named after Lake Tanganyika, which forms its western border, and Zanzibar, off its east coast. The country has been a member of the Commonwealth since reaching independence (1961). In 1964, Tanganyika united with the Zanzibar islands, forming the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later renamed to the United Republic of Tanzania. In 1996, Tanzania's capital was officially moved from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma, although many government offices still remain in the old capital.

History

Main article: History of Tanzania A German colony from the 1880s until 1919, the area subsequently became a British trust territory from 1919 to 1961. Julius Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960, and continued as Prime Minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961. Tanganyika and the neighbouring Zanzibar — which had become independent in 1963 — merged to form the nation of Tanzania on 26 April 1964. Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, which emphasized justice and equality, but proved economically disastrous, leading to food shortages as collective farms failed. In 1979, Tanzania declared war on Uganda after Uganda invaded and tried to annex Tanzanian territory in the north of the country. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but also invaded Uganda itself, forcing the ousting of Idi Amin. Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi in 1985, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In October 1995, one-party rule came to an end when Tanzania held its first ever multi-party election. However, CCM comfortably won the elections and its candidate Benjamin Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of the United Republic of Tanzania on 23 November 1995. One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian ocean caused tidal surges along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar es Salaam harbor, damaging an oil pipeline. oil pipeline]]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Tanzania Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats will be held in October 2005. The unicameral National Assembly elected in 2000 has 295 members. These 295 members include the Attorney General, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, the special women's seats which are made up of 20% of the seats a particular party has in the House, 181 constituents seats of members of Parliament from the mainland, and 50 seats from Zanzibar. Also in the list are 48 appointed for women and the seats for the 10 nominated members of Parliament. At present, the ruling CCM holds about 93% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters. Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are currently 76 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar, including 50 elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio members, and an attorney general appointed by the president. In May 2002, the government increased the number of special seats allocated to women from 10 to 15, which will increase the number of House of Representatives members to 81. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of government. Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and Court of Appeals. Judges are appointed by the Chief Justice, except those for the Court of Appeals and the High Court who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was established in September 1999 as a division of the High Court. For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions--21 on the mainland, 3 on Unguja, and 2 on Pemba (Unguja and Pemba make Zanzibar). Ninety-nine district councils have been created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town councils (the remaining 11 communities).

Geography

Mwanza Mwanza] Mwanza Main article: Geography of Tanzania Tanzania is mountainous in the north-east, where Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak, is situated. To the north and west are the Great Lakes of Lake Victoria (Africa's largest lake) and Lake Tanganyika. Central Tanzania comprises a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the island of Zanzibar lying just offshore. Tanzania contains many large and ecologically significant wildlife parks, including the famous Serengeti National Park in the north.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Tanzania Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 90% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Industry is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Tanzania has vast amount of natural resources like gold deposits and beautiful national parks that remain underdeveloped. Growth in 1991-99 has featured a pickup in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Natural gas exploration in the Rufiji Delta looks promising and production has already started [http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/company/cna52112.htm]. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment. Short-term economic progress also depends on curbing corruption and cutting on unnecessary public spending [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3719712.stm].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Tanzania Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1 person per square kilometer (3/mi²) in arid regions to 51 per square kilometer (133/mi²) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 134 per square kilometer (347/mi²) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the capital and largest city; Dodoma, located in the center of Tanzania, has been designated the new capital and the Parliament sits there, although action to move the capital has stalled. The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the Sukuma, Haya, Nyakyusa, Nyamwezi, and Chaga have more than 1 million members. The majority of Tanzanians, including such large tribes as the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are of Bantu stock. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family peculiar to the Bushman and Hottentot peoples. Cushitic-speaking peoples, originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania. Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group known as Shirazis claims its origins to be the supposed island's early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania. Each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili, a Bantu-based tongue with strong Arabic borrowings.

Regions

Chaga Main article: Regions of Tanzania For further information see Tanzania
- [http://www.vdiest.nl/Africa/tanzania.htm] Tanzania is divided into 26 regions: Arusha, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro, Lindi, Manyara, Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Pemba North, Pemba South, Pwani, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Shinyanga, Singida, Tabora, Tanga, Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North, Zanzibar Urban/West

Culture

Zanzibar Urban/West Zanzibar Urban/West Main article: Culture of Tanzania
- Music of Tanzania
- List of writers from Tanzania Taarab Music[http://www.mwambao.com/tarab.htm] is a fusion of Swahili tunes sung in rhythmic poetic style spiced with Arabic or, at times, Indian melodies. It is an extremely lively art form springing from a classical culture, still immensely popular with women, drawing all the time from old and new sources. Taarab forms a major part of the social life of the Swahili people along the coastal areas; especially Zanzibar, Tanga and even further in Mombasa and Malindi along the Kenya coast. Wherever the Swahili speaking people travelled. Tarabu culture moved with them. It has penetrated to as far as Uganda. Rwanda and Burundi in the interior of East Africa, where taarab groups compete in popularity with other western-music inspired groups. In the Persian Gulf, Dubai and Muscat,perhaps because of significant number of Waswahili from Tanzania, play host to many groups of Taraab who receive frequent invitations. These days a taarab revolution [http://www.swahilicoast.com/taarab_music_of_zanzibar.htm] is taking place and much heated debate continues about the music which has been changed drastically by the East African Melody phenomenon. Melody, as they are affectionately known by their mostly women fans, play modern taarab, which, for the first time, is 'taarab to dance to' and features direct lyrics, by- passing the unwritten laws of lyrical subtlety of the older groups such as Egyptian Musical Club and Al-Wattan Musical Club where meaning to their songs where only alluded to and never directly inferred. Today taarab songs are explicit sometimes even graphic in sexual connotation. Much of the music, today, of groups like Melody and Muungano is composed and played on keyboards, increasing portability, hence the group is much smaller in number than 'real taarab' orchestras and therefore more readily available to tour and play shows throughout the region and beyond. Tanzanian music has lost much of its identity since the heydays of the likes of Mbaraka Minshehe (who, perhaps, was the most popular and original musician of his time), this is partly attributed to the influx of musicians from the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), who were entering the country as refugees and made residence in the country. But in recent years, mainly from the mid-nineties, a new breed of young Tanzanian musicians has emerged and are coming up with popular tunes which are Tanzanian in composition. Bands like Twanga Pepeta have managed to curve a new tune distinct from imported Zairean tunes and are competing with Zairean bands in popularity and audience acceptance. The Tanzanian artistes have devised a new style going by the name of "Bongo Flava", which is blend of all sorts of melodies, beats, rhythms and sounds. The trend among the Tanzanian music consumers has started changing towards favouring products from their local artists who sing in Swahili, the national language. The mushrooming of FM music stations and cheap production studios has been a major boost to the music industry in the country. Contemporary artists like Juma Nature, Lady Jaydee, Mr. Nice, Mr. II, Cool James and many others command a huge audience of followers in the country and neighbouring countries. More information about Tanzanian music and events can be found on the various portals that have sprung up recently. Tanzania has an enormously high growth-rate for internet technologies, estimated at up to 500% per year. Because costs for computers are still quite high many users share connections at internet cafes or at work. [http://www.naomba.com naomba.com business directory], [http://www.tanzaniadirectory.info Movie and Sports information], [http://www.tanzaniayangu.com Arusha locality information] all are part of an increasing number of websites dedicated to the region.

Communications

Telecommunication services in Tanzania have in the past often been very unreliable. The mobile telephone services are usually available only in urban areas, although there are currently efforts to provide nationwide mobile phone coverage. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4036503.stm] Mobile Phone Companies
- Celtel
- Mobitel
- Tanzania Telecommunications Company
- Vodacom
- Zantel Internet Services Providers(ISPs) Internet services have been available since 1996 however there is no current fiber connectivity available to the Internet backbone, thus the connectivity is over Satellite network to the rest of the world, even to the neighbouring countries. It is expected that EASSY fiber project will bring in Internet connectivity to Tanzania at lower latency and lower cost. Some of the Internet Service Providers are;
- University Computing Centre[http://www.ucc.co.tz]
- Africa Online Tanzania[http://www.africaonline.co.tz ]
- Raha[http://www.raha.com]
- Cats-Net[http://www.cats-net.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- Kicheko[http://www.kicheko.com]
- Arusha Node Marie[http://www.habari.co.tz]
- ZanLink[http://www.zanlink.com] The complete list of the ISPs can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/isp.htm] Data Operators
- SatCom Networks Africa Limited
- DATEL[http://www.datelnet.com]
- TTCL[http://www.ttcl.co.tz]
- SimbaNet[http://www.simbanet.net]
- Afsat Communications[http://www.afsat.com] The complete list of Data operators can be accessed from Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority(TCRA) website[http://www.tcra.go.tz/Market%20info/data.htm] In 2005, mainland Tanzania (i.e. not Zanzibar) modified its licensing system for electronic communications, modelling it on the approach successfully pioneered in Malaysia in the late 1990s where traditional 'vertical' licences (right to operate a telecoms OR broadcasting network, and right to provide services on that network) are replaced by 'horizontal' licences (right to operate a telecoms AND broadcasting network, but a separate licence required to provide services on that network). This reform was the first of its kind on the African continent actually put into practice, and allows investors to concentrate on their area of expertise (i.e. network operation or service provision) across a maximum number of previously separate sectors (i.e. telecommunications, broadcasting, Internet). This reform should, amongst other things, facilitate the arrival of telephony services over cable television networks, television services over telecommunications networks, and Internet services over all types of networks. In short, Tanzania is the first African country to adapt its regulatory environment to the phenomenon of convergence.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- Foreign relations of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- List of Tanzanian companies
- List of Famous Tanzanians
- Military of Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.
- [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/36/345.html Privatizing Tanzania telecommunication company]
- Stamps and postal history of Tanzania
- Transportation in Tanzania From the CIA World Factbook 2000. Not Wikified.

External links

Government

- [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.tz/ Parliament of Tanzania] official site

Higher Learning Institutions

- [http://www.udsm.ac.tz/ UDSM]The University Of Dar-Es-Salaam.
- [http://www.suanet.ac.tz/ SUA]The Sokoine University Of Agriculture.
- [http://www.hkmu.ac.tz/ HKMU]The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University.

News

- [http://allafrica.com/tanzania/ AllAfrica.com - Tanzania] news headline links
- [http://www.theexpress.com/ The Express Online] weekly newspaper
- [http://www.ippmedia.com/ IPP Media]
- [http://www.tanzania-news.com/ Tanzania News] The Top headlines from the major Tanzanian newspapers.

Business

- [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm BBC News Country Profile - Tanzania]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html CIA World Factbook - Tanzania]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/tz/ US State Department - Tanzania] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Tanzania.html Columbia University Libraries - Tanzania] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania/ Open Directory Project - Tanzania] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/tanzan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Tanzania] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Tanzania/ Yahoo! - Tanzania] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.discovertanzania.org/tanzania.asp Tanzania] Climate, medical and visa information

Other

- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=256 GlobalPolitician - "Tanzania: An Example Of What Third World Should Not Do"] December 22, 2004 editorial
- [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/04/14/opinion/edpower.html IHT - "Now, some good news from Africa"] April 15, 2005 editorial Category:African Union member states Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Geographic portmanteaus zh-min-nan:Tanzania ko:탄자니아 ms:Tanzania ja:タンザニア

Milton Obote

Apollo Milton Obote (December 28 1924, Apac, Uganda – October 10 2005, Johannesburg, South Africa), Prime Minister of Uganda 1962-1966 and President of Uganda 1966-1971/1980-1985, was a Ugandan political leader who led Uganda to independence in 1962. His government replaced the British colonial administration. He was overthrown by Idi Amin in 1971, but gained power again in 1980. His second rule was marred by repression, and the death of many civilians during a civil war.

Early life and first presidency

Milton Obote was born at Akokoro village in Apac district in northern Uganda. He was the son of a local chief of the Lango ethnic group. He began his education in 1940 at the Protestant Missionary School in Lira, Gulu Junior Secondary School, Busoga College and later Makerere College, where he honed his natural oratorial skills but was expelled for participating in a student strike (Obote claims he left Makerere voluntarily). He worked in Buganda in southern Uganda before he went to Kenya, where he worked as a construction worker for an engineering firm. While in Kenya he became involved in the local independence movement. Upon returning to Uganda, he joined Uganda National Congress (UNC) in 1955 and was elected to the colonial Legislative Council in 1958[http://www.upcparty.net]. In 1959, the UNC split, and Obote became head of the newly formed Uganda People's Congress (UPC). After several years as head of the opposition, Obote formed a coalition with the Buganda royalist party, Kabaka Yekka, and was elected prime minister in 1961. He assumed the post on April 25, 1962, with Sir Walter Coutts as Governor-General of Uganda. The following year, he deposed Queen Elizabeth II as Ugandan head of state, and Edward Mutesa II, the kabaka (king) of Buganda, became the ceremonial president, with Obote as executive vice-president. As prime minister, Obote was implicated in a gold smuggling plot, together with Idi Amin, then deputy commander of the Ugandan armed forces. When the the Parliament demanded an investigation of Obote and the ousting of Amin, he suspended the constitution, abolishing the roles of leaders of Uganda's five tribal kingdoms and giving himself almost unlimited power under state-of-emergency rulings; he had several members of his cabinet arrested. Obote's judiciary cleared him of the gold-smuggling charges, but the episode created tensions between him and Mutesa, who was critical of Obote for suspending the constitution. Obote staged a coup against Mutesa and had himself declared president on March 2, 1966. His nominally socialist rule made him unpopular with the Western powers, particularly Britain, and his regime was greatly destabilized by the military. In 1971 he was deposed by his army chief, Idi Amin, after which he fled to Tanzania. The British government of Edward Heath is known to have given at least tacit approval for the coup.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1004664,00.html]

Second term

After Idi Amin was ousted in 1979 by Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles, Uganda was governed by an interim Presidential Commission before elections. The elections in 1980 were won by Obote's UPC party. However, the other political parties believed the elections were rigged, leading to guerilla rebellion by Yoweri Museveni's National Resistance Army and several other military groups. It has been estimated that 100,000 to 300,000 people died as a result of fighting between Obote's UNLA and the Guerillas. Obote was deposed again, on 27 July 1985, by his own army commanders Brigadier Bazilio Okello and General Tito Okello in a military coup. Okello and Okello briefly ruled the country through a Military Council, but after a few months of near anarchy, Museveni's National Resistance Army (NRA) took control of Uganda.

Death in exile

After his second downfall, Obote fled to Zambia. For some years it was rumoured that he would return to Ugandan politics. In August 2005, however, he announced his intention to step down as leader of the UPC.[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-08/28/content_3412655.htm] In September 2005, it was reported that Obote would return to Uganda before the end of 2005.[http://english.people.com.cn/200509/02/eng20050902_206125.html] On 10 October, Obote died of kidney failure in a hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4328834.stm] Milton Obote was given a state funeral, attended by president Museveni in the Ugandan capital Kampala in October 2005, to the surprise and appreciation of many Ugandans, since he and Museveni were bitter rivals. Other groups, such as the Baganda survivors of the "Luwero Triangle" massacres, were bitter that Obote was given a state funeral. He was survived by his wife and five children. On November 28, his wife Miria Obote was elected UPC party president.[http://www.monitor.co.ug/news/latest.php]

Reference

- [http://www.monitor.co.ug/specialincludes/ugprsd/obote/ob04072.php I come from royal ancestry], Published in The Monitor
- New York Times, October 11 2005. Obituary
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5335045,00.html Uganda's First Prime Minister Dies], The Guardian, 11 October 2005
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5358413,00.html Uganda's President Museveni Mourns Foe], The Guardian, 20 October 2005
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5359988,00.html Thousands Attend Obote Funeral in Uganda], The Guardian, 21 October 2005

External links

- [http://www.monitor.co.ug/specialincludes/ugprsd/obote/index.php Obote Series - a series of articles and interviews published in The Monitor]
- [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR590011999?open&of=ENG-UGA Amnesty International report on Uganda.]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4328834.stm Former Ugandan leader Obote dies], BBC News, 10 October 2005
- [http://www.monitor.co.ug/news/news10115.php A founding father adored, dreaded in equal measure], The Monitor Obote, Milton Obote, Milton Obote, Milton Obote, Milton ja:ミルトン・オボテ

Tanzania

History

Politics

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Regions

Culture

Communications

Miscellaneous topics

External links

Government

- [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.tz/ Parliament of Tanzania] official site

Higher Learning Institutions

News

Business

- [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]

Overviews

Directories

Tourism

-
- [http://www.discovertanzania.org/tanzania.asp Tanzania] Climate, medical and visa information

Other

Benjamin Mkapa

Benjamin William Mkapa (born November 12, 1938) is the President of the United Republic of Tanzania (since 1995), for the Revolutionary Party (Chama Cha Mapinduzi; CCM). Oxford Graduate. His second 5-year term of office ends in December 2005. Previous posts include being the administrative officer in Dodoma and the Minister for Science, Technology and Higher Education. Also led the Tanzania mission to the USA. He was also the Foreign affairs Minister for six years. During his term Mkapa continued the liberalization of the economy that began under his predecessor Ali Hassan Mwinyi. He privatized most of the state owned corporations and pursued free market policies designed to attract foreign investment. Critics of Mkapa's policies felt that he went too far in allowing foreign companies control over the economy. They further claimed that his policies failed to improve the economic condition of the average Tanzanian. His supporters argued that attracting foreign investment was the only way to achieve economic growth. His policies won the support of the World Bank and IMF and resulted in the cancellation of some of Tanzania's foreign debts. Mkapa, Benjamin Mkapa, Benjamin Mkapa, Benjamin ja:ベンジャミン・ウィリアム・ムカパ

Mwai Kibaki

Mwai Kibaki (born November 15, 1931) is Kenya's third president, an economist, and a political leader. He was baptised Emilio Stanley by Italian missionaries in his youth but he rarely uses those names. Kibaki belongs to the largest Kenyan ethnic group, the Kĩkũyũ (22% of the population). Born at Gatuyaini Village in Othaya division of Nyeri district, Kibaki was the youngest son of peasants Kibaki Githinji and Teresia Wanjiku (both now deceased). He was educated at Gatuyaini School (two years), Karima Mission School (three years), Mathari Boarding Primary School (between 1944 and 1946). He studied at Mang'u High School between 1947 and 1950. He obtained the maximum possible score in his high school terminal examinations. He studied Economics, History and Political Science at Makerere University College, Kampala, Uganda. During his studies, he was chairman of the Kenya Students' Association. In 1955, he graduated as best student of his class, and was therefore awarded a scholarship to undertake further studies in the United Kingdom. After obtaining a B.Sc. with distinction in Public Finance at the London School of Economics, he became economics lecturer at Makerere. In early 1960 however, he gave up his job to become executive officer of KANU. He helped to draft the constitution of Kenya. In the 1963 elections, he took the then Donholm constituency (subsequently called Bahati and now known as Makadara). He has been a member of parliament (MP) ever since. His election was the start of a remarkable political career. Appointed Assistant Minister of Finance and chairman of the Economic Planning Commission in 1963, he was promoted to Minister of Commerce and Industry in 1966. In 1969, he became Minister of Finance. In 1974 Time magazine rated him among the top 100 people in the world who had the potential to lead. When Daniel arap Moi succeeded Jomo Kenyatta as President of Kenya, Kibaki was elevated to the Vice Presidency, but was allowed to keep the Finance portfolio, which he exchanged for that of Home Affairs in 1982. Kibaki fell out of favour with President Moi in 1988, and was dropped as Vice President and moved to the Ministry of Health. In December 1991, only days after the repeal of Section 2A of the constitution, which restored the multiparty system, Mwai Kibaki left KANU and founded the Democratic Party (DP). He came third in the presidential elections of 1992, and was second in the 1997 elections. In preparation of the 2002 elections, NAK allied itself with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) to form the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). On December 27, 2002, NARC won a landslide victory over KANU. Kibaki got 62% of the votes in the presidential elections, against only 31% for the KANU candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta. On December 30, 2002, Mwai Kibaki was sworn in as the third President of Kenya. Kibaki's first cabinet was a careful balancing act with one Minister, or Assistant Minister, coming from each of Kenya's forty-two areas. His Presidential style is very 'hands-off', unlike his predecessor who attempted to control everything from the centre. While Kibaki's style has the benefit of allowing his Ministers the freedom to manage their departments and introduce much needed reforms, he has been unwilling to give any public lead in the fight against corruption. To date, no senior figures have appeared in court on corruption charges, despite numerous investigations and no shortage of either targets or amunition. In November 2004, in an ABC PrimeTime interview with Peter Jennings, former US President Bill Clinton identified Kibaki as the one living person he would most like to meet "because of the Kenyan government's decision to abolish school fees for primary education". Clinton added that, by providing free and compulsory primary education, what Kibaki had done would affect more lives than any president had done or would ever do by the end of this year. The free education programme that has seen nearly 1.7 million more pupils enroll in school.

2005 dismissal of cabinet

Kibaki made a historic and decisive political move on November 23, 2005 by dismissing his entire cabinet in the middle of his administration's term. This came just days after the majority of Kenya's citizens rejected a proposed new constitution regarding which Kibaki and numerous officials had pushed for a 'yes' vote. About his decision Kibaki said,“Following the results of the Referendum, it has become necessary for me, as the President of the Republic, to re-organise my Government to make it more cohesive and better able to serve the people of Kenya". Although the dismissal of individual officials is commonplace in government, the dissolution of the cabinet in its entirety is rare. The only member of the cabinet office to be spared a midterm exit was that of the Attorney General whose position is constitutionally protected against Kibaki's presidential powers. Vice President Moody Awori retained his post, however, as Minister of Home Affairs. The dismissal of the cabinet follows a seven month period in which its members never actually formally met, preferring to play political games with one another through the media. As stated above, corruption charges and investigations into the affairs of the cabinet had gone undisciplined by the president, who had been criticised for not reeling in his officials. Kibaki has pledged to appoint a new cabinet within two weeks, until then he will be managing all of the nation's affairs single-handedly [http://allafrica.com/stories/200511230844.html].

Private life

He is married to Lucy Kibaki, with whom he has one daughter, Judy Wanjiku, and three sons: Jimmy Kibaki, David Kagai, and Tony Githinji. Kibaki is also reported to have a second spouse, Mary Wambui, with whom he has a daughter. Though officially the State House has denied Wambui status as his wife, she is provided all the trappings of a presidential spouse including armed bodyguards & limousines.

Preceded by:
Daniel arap Moi

President of Kenya

Followed by:
(Incumbent)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4517071.stm Profile: Kenya's controversial first lady]
- [http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/presidents/kibaki/profile.htm Profile of President Mwai Kibaki]
- [http://www.africanreviewofbooks.com/Reviews/mbugua.html Review of Mwai Kibaki: Economist for Kenya by Ng'ang'a Mbugua] Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki, Mwai Kibaki, Mwai ja:ムワイ・キバキ

Ali Mazrui

Ali Mazrui (born February 24 1933 in Mombasa, Kenya) is a world-renowned academic and political writer.

External links

- [http://www.cca.ukzn.ac.za/images/tow/TOW2004/Mazrui.htm Time of the Writer Festival]
- [http://igcs.binghamton.edu/igcs_site/igcsdir.htm Institute of Global Cultural Studies: Biography of Mazrui]
- [http://igcs.binghamton.edu/igcs_site/igcsdir2.htm Institute of Global Cultural Studies: Curriculum Vitae of Mazrui]
- [http://www.islam-democracy.org/mazrui_bio.asp Center for Islam and Democracy]

Peter Nazareth

Peter Nazareth (b. 1940), is a critic and writer of fiction and drama. He was born in Uganda of Goan and Malaysian ancestry and educated at Makerere University, Uganda and at the universities of London and Leeds. He served as senior finance officer in Idi Amin's finance ministry until he was able to get out in 1973 to accept a fellowship at Yale University. He is currently professor of English and African-American World Studies at the University of Iowa.

Books

- Critical Essays on Ngugi wa Thiong'o, New York: Twayne Publishers, 2000
- Waiting for Amin: Two Decades of Ugandan Literature (1984)
- The Confessor (1981)
- Eccentric Ferns (1980)
- The Third World Writer: His Social Responsibility, Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1978
- Two Radio Plays, Kampala: East African Literaturej Bureau, 1976
- An African View of Literature (1974)
- The Institute (1974)
- Literature and Society in Modern Africa; Essays on Literature, Evanston, ILL,Northwestern
- University Press, 1974
- In a Brown Mantle, Nairobi, East African Literature Bureau, 1972 Nazareth, Peter Nazareth, Peter

Church of England

The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, and acts as the 'mother' and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. Porvoo Communions, many with histories stretching back centuries.]]

Theology and sociology

The Church of England considers itself to stand both in a reformed tradition and in a catholic (but not Roman Catholic) church tradition: Reformed insofar as many of the principles of the Protestant Reformation have influenced it, and insofar as it does not accept Papal authority; Catholic, in that it views itself as the 'unbroken continuation of the early apostolic and later medieval' "universal church", rather than as a 'new formation'. In its practices, furthermore, the Church of England remains closer to Roman Catholicism than most Protestant Churches. It holds many relatively conservative theological beliefs, its liturgical form of worship can feature tradition and ceremony, and its organisation embodies a belief in apostolic succession through the historical episcopal hierarchy of archbishops, bishops, and dioceses. In many people's eyes, however, the Church of England has as its primary distinguishing mark its breadth and 'open-mindedness'. In addition to the traditional mainstream, the church has long included "high church" and "low church" factions with their own particular preferences. Today, practices range from those of the Anglo-Catholics, who emphasise liturgy and sacraments, to the far less ceremonial services of Evangelicals and Charismatics. But this "broad church" faces various contentious doctrinal questions raised by the development of modern society, such as conflicts over the ordination of women as priests (accepted in 1992 and begun in 1994), and the status of noncelibate homosexual clergy (still unsettled today). In July 2005, the divisions were once again apparent, as the General Synod voted to "set in train" the process of allowing the ordination of women as bishops, scheduling debate on the specific legislation for February, 2006.

Governance and administration

The British monarch (at present, Elizabeth II), has the constitutional title of "Supreme Governor of the Church of England". In practice, however, the effective leadership falls to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches recognises the Archbishop of Canterbury as a kind of 'symbolic' leader. Dr Rowan Douglas Williams has served as Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002. The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. However, fundamental legislation still has to pass through the UK Parliament. The church has its own judicial branch, known as the Ecclesiastical courts, which likewise form a part of the UK court system. In addition to England proper, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. In recent years, expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese in Europe.

History

Main article: History of the Church of England The Church of England traces its formal corporate history from the 597 Augustinian mission, stresses its continuity and identity with the primitive universal Western church, and notes the consolidation of its particular independent and national character in the post-Reformation events of Tudor England. Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second centuries (probably via the tin trade route through Ireland and Spain), and existed independently of the Church of Rome, as did many other Christian communities of that era. Records note British bishops as attending the Council of Arles in 314. The Pope sent Saint Augustine from Rome in the 6th century to evangelise the Angles in (597). With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, he established his church in Canterbury, the capital of Kent, and became the first in the series of archbishops of Canterbury. Simultaneously, the Celtic Church of St.Columba continued to evangelise Scotland. The Celtic Church of North Britain submitted in some sense to the 'authority' of Rome at the Council of Whitby in 644. Over the next few centuries, the Roman system introduced by Augustine gradually absorbed the pre-existing Celtic Christian churches. England remained a Roman Catholic country for nearly a thousand years, but then the church separated itself from Rome in 1534, during the reign of King Henry VIII, though it briefly rejoined Rome during the reign of Queen Mary I, in 1555. Since that time, England has been known as a 'stronghold' of Protestantism, and of world-wide Christian evangelism, eventually being eclipsed in these activities during the twentieth century by one of her former colonies, the United States.

Related churches

In Scotland, the Church of Scotland is recognised in law (Church of Scotland Act 1921) as the "national church", but since 1929 it has not been "established" in the same manner as the Church of England. In particular, the state 'recognises' the independence of the Church of Scotland in matters spiritual, thus no ministers are appointed by the Crown or the State. The Church of Scotland has a Presbyterian system of government. A smaller Anglican church also exists in Scotland, known as the Scottish Episcopal Church, which is in full communion with the Church of England. The Church in Wales underwent disestablishment in 1920, and became an independent member of the Anglican Communion. The Church of Ireland had official established church status in Ireland until 1871, although the bulk of the Irish people in practice remained mostly Roman Catholic. The Church of England stands in full communion with the other churches in the Anglican Communion, and separately with the other signatories of the Porvoo Communion. The Church of England is also a full member of the Conference of European Churches.

Financial situation

The Church of England, although an established church, does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, though it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. As of 2005, the Church of England had estimated total [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/funding/ outgoings] of around £900 million. Historically, individual parishes both raised and spent the vast majority of the Church's funding, meaning that clergy pay depended on the wealth of the parish, and parish advowsons (the right to appoint clergy to particular parishes) could become extremely valuable gifts. Individual dioceses also held considerable assets: the Diocese of Durham possessed such vast wealth and temporal power that its Bishop became known as the 'Prince-Bishop'. Since the mid-19th century, however, the Church has made various moves to 'equalise' the situation, and clergy within each diocese now receive standard stipends paid from diocesan funds. Meanwhile, the Church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the Church Commissioners, which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions, and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses. These [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchcommissioners/annualreport/ funds] amount to around £3.9 billion, and generate income of around £164 million each year (as of 2003), around a fifth of the Church's overall income. The Church Commissioners give some of this money as 'grants' to local parishes; but the majority of the financial burden of church upkeep and the work of local parishes still rests with individual parish and diocese, which meet their requirements from donations. Direct donations to the church (not including legacies) come to around £460 million per year, while parish and diocese reserve funds generate another £100 million. Funds raised in individual parishes account for almost all of this money, and the majority of it remains in the parish which raises it, meaning that the resources available to parishes still vary enormously, according to the level of donations they can raise. Most parishes give a portion of their money, however, to the diocese as a 'quota'. While this is not a compulsory payment, dioceses strongly encourage and rely on it being paid; it is usually only withheld by parishes either if are unable to find the funds or as a specific act of protest. As well as paying central diocesan expenses such as the running of diocesan offices, these diocesan funds also provide clergy pay and housing expenses (which total around £260 million per year across all dioceses), meaning that clergy living conditions no longer depend on parish-specific fundraising. Although asset-rich, the Church of England has to look after and maintain its thousands of churches nationwide — the lion's share of England's built heritage. As current congregation numbers stand at relatively low levels and as maintenance bills increase as the buildings grow older, many of these churches cannot maintain economic self-sufficiency; but their historical and architectural importance make it difficult to sell them. In recent years, cathedrals and other famous churches have met some of their maintenance costs with grants from organisations such as English Heritage; but the Church Commissioners and [http://www.churchcare.co.uk/fundraising.html local fundraisers] must foot the bill entirely in the case of most small parish churches. (The government, however, does provide some assistance in the form of tax breaks, for example a 100 percent VAT refund for renovations to religious buildings.) In addition to consecrated buildings, the Church also controls numerous ancillary buildings attached to or associated with churches, including a good deal of clergy housing. As well as vicarages and rectories, this housing includes residences (called 'palaces') for each of the Church's 114 bishops. In some cases, this name seems entirely apt; buildings such as Archbishop of Canterbury's Lambeth Palace in London and Old Palace at Canterbury have truly palatial dimensions, while the Bishop of Durham's Auckland Palace has 50 rooms, a banqueting hall and 30 acres (120,000 m²) of parkland. However, many bishops have found the older palaces inappropriate for today's lifestyles, and some bishops' 'palaces' are simply ordinary 4-bedroomed houses. Many dioceses which have retained large palaces now employ part of the space as administrative offices, while the bishops and their families live in a small apartment within the palace; and in recent years some dioceses have managed to put their palaces' excess space and grandeur to profitable use as conference centres. The size of the bishops' households has also shrunk dramatically and their budgets for entertaining and servants form a tiny fraction of their pre-20th-century levels.

External link

- [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/ Church of England website] ja:イギリス国教会 Category:Church of England Category:Religion in the United Kingdom Category:State churches (Christian)

Okello Oculi

Okello Oculi (b. 1942), is a Ugandan novelist, poet, and chronicler of African rural village life. He was born in Dokolo, Lira District in northern Uganda and educated at Soroti College and St. Peter's College, Tororo, St. Mary's College, Kisubi. He studied political science at Makerere University. His writing is filled with authentic snatches of conversation, proverbs, and folk wisdom that confirm African values and denounce European imitations. His poetry, like that of Okot p'Bitek and Joseph Buruga, seeks to re-assert the cultural heritage of Africa with a critique of foreign influences in East Africa. Okello Oculi is currently professor of Social and Economic Research at Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria.

Books

- Song for the Sun in Us (2000)
- Discourses on African Affairs: Directions and Destinies for the 21st Century (1999)
- Political economy of malnutrition (1987)
- Kookolem (1976)
- Malak: An African Political Poem (1976)
- Imperialism, settlers and capitalism in Kenya (1975)
- Kanta Riti (1972)
- Orphan (1968) (dramatized poetry)
- Prostitute (1968) Oculi, Okello Oculi, Okello

Peter Nazareth

Books

Malawi

The Republic of Malawi (Pronunciation: ) is a land-locked nation in Southern Africa, although sometimes it is considered to also be situated in Eastern Africa. It is bordered by Tanzania to the north, Zambia on the north-west, and Mozambique on the east, south, and west. Lake Malawi comprises about a fifth of the country's territory and it is stretched through most of its eastern border. The origins for the name Malawi remains unclear; it is held to be either derived from that of southern tribes, or noting the 'glitter of the sun rising across the lake' (as seen in its flag).

History

Main article: History of Malawi Hominid remains and stone implements have been identified in Malawi dating back more than 1 million years, and early humans inhabited the vicinity of Lake Malawi 50,000 to 60,000 years ago. Human remains at a site dated about 8000 BC show physical characteristics similar to peoples living today in the Horn of Africa. At another site, dated 1500 BC, the remains possess features resembling Bushman people. Although the Portuguese reached the area in the 16th century, the first significant Western contact was the arrival of David Livingstone along the shore of Lake Malawi in 1859. Subsequently, Scottish Presbyterian churches established missions in Malawi. One of their objectives was to end the slave trade to the Persian Gulf that continued to the end of the 19th century. In 1878, a number of traders, mostly from Glasgow, formed the African Lakes Company to supply goods and services to the missionaries. Other missionaries, traders, hunters, and planters soon followed. In 1883, a consul of the British Government was accredited to the "Kings and Chiefs of Central Africa," and in 1891, the British established the British Central Africa Protectorate, by 1907, the Nyasaland Protectorate (Nyasa is the Yao word for "lake"). Although the British remained in control during the first half of the 1900s, this period was marked by a number of unsuccessful Malawian attempts to obtain independence. A growing European and U.S.-educated African elite became increasingly vocal and politically active--first through associations, and after 1944, through the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC). During the 1950s, pressure for independence increased when Nyasaland was joined with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in 1953 to form the Central African Federation. In July 1958, Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda returned to the country after a long absence in the United States (where he had obtained his medical degree at Meharry Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee in 1937), the United Kingdom (where he practiced medicine), and Ghana. He assumed leadership of the NAC, which later became the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1959, Banda was sent to Gwelo Prison for his political activities but was released in 1960 to participate in a constitutional conference in London. On April 15, 1961, the MCP won an overwhelming victory in elections for a new Legislative Council. It also gained an important role in the new Executive Council and ruled Nyasaland in all but name a year later. In a second constitutional conference in London in November 1962, the British Government agreed to give Nyasaland self-governing status the following year. Dr. Banda became Prime Minister on February 1, 1963, although the British still controlled Malawi's financial, security, and judicial systems. A new constitution took effect in May 1963, providing for virtually complete internal self-government. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved on December 31, 1963, and Malawi became a fully independent member of the (formerly British) Commonwealth on July 6, 1964. Two years later, Malawi became a republic with Dr. Banda as its first President, and was also declared a one-party state. In 1970 Dr. Banda was declared President for life of the MCP, and in 1971 Banda consolidated his power and was named President for Life of Malawi itself. The paramilitary wing of the Malawi Congress Party, the Young Pioneers, helped keep Malawi under authoritarian control until the 1990s. Increasing domestic unrest and pressure from Malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the Malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi-party democracy or the continuation of a one-party state. On June 14, 1993, the people of Malawi voted overwhelmingly in favor of multi-party democracy. Free and fair national elections were held on May 17, 1994. Bakili Muluzi, leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF), was elected President in those elections. The UDF won 82 of the 177 seats in the National Assembly and formed a coalition government with the Alliance for Democracy (AFORD). That coalition disbanded in June 1996, but some of its members remained in the government. The President is referred to as Dr. Muluzi, having received an honorary degree at Lincoln University in Missouri in 1995. Malawi's newly written constitution (1995) eliminated special powers previously reserved for the Malawi Congress Party. Accelerated economic liberalization and structural reform accompanied the political transition. On June 15, 1999, Malawi held its second democratic elections. Dr. Bakili Muluzi was re-elected to serve a second 5-year term as President, despite an MCP-AFORD alliance that ran a joint slate against the UDF. Malawi saw its first transition between democratically elected presidents in May 2004, when the UDF’s presidential candidate Bingu wa Mutharika defeated MCP candidate John Tembo and Gwanda Chakuamba, who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties. The UDF, however, did not win a majority of seats in Parliament, as it had done in 1994 and 1999 elections. Through the politicking of party chairperson and former President Bakili Muluzi, the party successfully secured a majority by forming a "government of national unity" with several opposition parties. President Bingu wa Mutharika left the UDF party on February 5, 2005 citing differences with the UDF, particularly over his anti-corruption campaign. He went on to form his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP).

Politics

Main article: Politics of Malawi The Government of Malawi has been a multi-party democracy since 1994. Under the 1995 constitution, the president, who is both chief of state and head of the government, is chosen through universal direct suffrage every 5 years. Malawi has a vice president who is elected with the president. The president has the option of appointing a second vice president, who must be from a different political party. The members of the presidentially appointed cabinet can be drawn from either within or outside of the legislature. Malawi's National Assembly has 193 seats, all directly elected to serve 5-year terms. The constitution also provides for a second chamber, a Senate of 80 seats, but to date no action has been taken to create the Senate. The Senate is intended to provide representation for traditional leaders and the different geographical districts, as well as various special interest groups, such as women, youth, and the disabled. The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. Malawi's judicial system, based on the English model, is made up of magisterial lower courts, a High Court, and a Supreme Court of Appeal. Local government is carried out in 28 districts within three regions administered by regional administrators and district commissioners who are appointed by the central government. Local elections, the first in the multi-party era, took place in on November 21, 2000. The UDF party won 70% of the seats in this election. The third multiparty presidential and parliamentary elections, originally planned for May 18, 2004 were postponed by two days following a High Court appeal by the main opposition Mgwirizano (Unity) coalition. The run-up to the poll was overshadowed by opposition claims of irregularities in the voters' roll. European Union and Commonwealth observers said although voting passed peacefully, they were concerned about "serious inadequacies" in the poll.

Districts

Main article: Districts of Malawi Malawi is divided into 27 districts: Balaka, Blantyre, Chikwawa, Chiradzulu, Chitipa, Dedza, Dowa, Karonga, Kasungu, Likoma, Lilongwe, Machinga, Mangochi, Mchinji, Mulanje, Mwanza, Mzimba, Nkhata Bay, Nkhotakota, Nsanje, Ntcheu, Ntchisi, Phalombe, Rumphi, Salima, Thyolo, Zomba

Geography

Zomba Zomba Main article: Geography of Malawi Malawi is situated in southeastern Africa. The Great Rift Valley traverses the country from north to south. In this deep trough lies Lake Malawi (also called Lake Nyasa), the third-largest lake in Africa, comprising about 20% of Malawi's area. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometres (250 mi) farther south in Mozambique. East and west of the Rift Valley, the land forms high plateaus, generally between 900 and 1,200 m (3,000-4,000 ft) above sea level. In the north, the Nyika Uplands rise as high as 2,600 m (8,500 ft); south of the lake lie the Shire Highlands, with an elevation of 600-1,600 m (2,000-5,000 ft), rising to Mts. Zomba and Mulanje, 2,130 and 3,048 m (7,000 and 10,000 ft). In the extreme south, the elevation is only 60-90 m (200-300 ft) above sea level. Malawi is one of Sub-Saharan Africa's most densely populated countries. The population of Lilongwe —Malawi's capital since 1971— exceeds 400,000. All government ministries and the Parliament are located in Lilongwe. Blantyre remains Malawi's major commercial center and largest city, having grown from an estimated 109,000 inhabitants in 1966 to nearly 500,000 in 1998. Malawi's President resides in Lilongwe. The Supreme Court is seated in Blantyre. Malawi's climate is generally subtropical. A rainy season runs from November through April. There is little to no rainfall throughout most of the country from May to October. It is hot and humid from October to April along the lake and in the Lower Shire Valley. Lilongwe is also hot and humid during these months, albeit far less than in the south. The rest of the country is warm during those months. From June through August, the lake areas and far south are comfortably warm, but the rest of Malawi can be chilly at night, with temperatures ranging from 5 °-14 °C (41°-57°F). See also List of cities in Malawi

Exclaves and enclaves

The islands of Likoma and Chizumulu belong to Malawi but lie entirely within Mozambique territorial waters, forming maritime exclaves [http://geosite.jankrogh.com/malawi.htm].

Economy

Main article: Economy of Malawi Malawi is a landlocked, densely populated country. Its economy is heavily dependent on agriculture. Malawi has few exploitable mineral resources. Its three most important export crops are (in order) tobacco, tea and sugar. Malawi's president recently urged farmers to consider growing other crops, such as cotton ([http://www.tobaccochina.com/englishnew/content1.aspx?id=16188]), as an alternative to the country's principal crop, tobacco, as cigarette consumption in the West continues to decline. Traditionally Malawi has been self-sufficient in its staple food, maize, and during the 1980s exported substantial quantities to its drought-stricken neighbors. Agriculture represents 38.6% of the GDP, accounts for over 80% of the labor force, and represents about 80% of all exports. Nearly 90% of the population engages in subsistence farming. Smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops, including maize (corn), beans, rice, cassava, tobacco, and groundnuts (peanuts).The agricultural sector contributes about 63.7% of total income for the rural population, 65% of manufacturing sector’s raw materials, and approximately 87% of total employment. Financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Malawi's manufacturing industries are situated around the city of Blantyre. Malawi's economic reliance on the export of agricultural commodities renders it particularly vulnerable to external shocks such as declining terms of trade and drought. High transport costs, which can comprise over 30% of its total import bill, constitute a serious impediment to economic development and trade. Malawi must import all its fuel products. Paucity of skilled labor; difficulty in obtaining expatriate employment permits; bureaucratic red tape; corruption; and inadequate and deteriorating road, electricity, water, and telecommunications infrastructure further hinder economic development in Malawi. However, recent government initiatives targeting improvements in the road infrastructure, together with private sector participation in railroad and telecommunications, have begun to render the investment environment more attractive. Malawi has undertaken economic structural adjustment programs supported by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other donors since 1981. Broad reform objectives include stimulation of private sector activity and participation through the elimination of price controls and industrial licensing, liberalization of trade and foreign exchange, rationalization of taxes, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and civil service reform. Malawi qualified for Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) debt relief. As of late May 2004, the IMF program begun in 2000 was canceled and a Staff-Monitored Program (SMP) was implemented. In the wake of questions about fiscal credibility, the SMP’s goal is to give Malawi’s newly-elected government the chance to establish a track record of fiscal discipline. Real GDP increased by an estimated 3.9% in 2004, from 4.3% in 2003 and 2.4% in 2002. Inflation has been largely under control since 2003, averaging 10% in that year and 11.1% (est.) in 2004. Discount and commercial lending rates also declined from 40%-45% in 2003 to 25% in early 2004. The Kwacha slid from 90 to 101 against the U.S. dollar in mid-2003 and was at 108 to the U.S. dollar at the end of 2004. Malawi has bilateral trade agreements with its two major trading partners, South Africa and Zimbabwe, both of which allow duty-free entry of Malawian products into their countries.

Foreign Relations

Malawi has continued the pro-Western foreign policy established by former President Banda. It maintains excellent diplomatic relations with principal Western countries. Malawi's close relations with South Africa throughout the apartheid era strained its relations with other African nations. Following the collapse of apartheid in 1994, Malawi developed, and currently maintains, strong diplomatic relations with all African countries. Between 1985 and 1995, Malawi accommodated more than a million refugees from Mozambique. The refugee crisis placed a substantial strain on Malawi's economy but also drew significant inflows of international assistance. The accommodation and eventual repatriation of the Mozambicans is considered a major success by international organizations. In 1996, Malawi received a number of Rwandan and Congolese refugees seeking asylum. The government did not turn away refugees, but it did invoke the principle of "first country of asylum." Under this principle, refugees who requested asylum in another country first, or who had the opportunity to do so, would not subsequently be granted asylum in Malawi. There were no reports of the forcible repatriation of refugees. Important bilateral donors, in addition to the U.S., include Canada, Libya, Germany, Iceland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. Multilateral donors include the World Bank, the IMF, the European Union, the African Development Bank, and the United Nations organizations. Malawi is a member of the following international organizations: UN and some of its specialized and related agencies (i.e. UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO), IMF, World Bank, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Berne Convention, Universal Copyright Convention, African Union, Lome Convention, African Development Bank (AFDB), Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Nonaligned Movement, G-77, and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Demographics

World Health Organization Main article: Demographics of Malawi Malawi derives its name from the Maravi, a Bantu people who came from the southern Congo about 600 years ago. On reaching the area north of Lake Malawi, the Maravi divided. One branch, the ancestors of the present-day Chewas, moved south to the west bank of the lake. The other, the ancestors of the Nyanjas, moved down the east bank to the southern part of the country. By 1500 AD, the two divisions of the tribe had established a kingdom stretching from north of the present-day city of Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River in the south, and from Lake Malawi in the east, to the Luangwa River in Zambia in the west. Migrations and tribal conflicts precluded the formation of a cohesive Malawian society until the turn of the 20th century. In more recent years, ethnic and tribal distinctions have diminished. Regional distinctions and rivalries, however, persist. Despite some clear differences, no significant friction currently exists between tribal groups, and the concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to take hold. Predominately a rural people, Malawians are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent. The Chewas constitute 90% of the population of the central region; the Nyanja tribe predominates in the south and the Tumbuka in the north. In addition, significant numbers of the Tongas live in the north; Ngonis -- an offshoot of the Zulus who came from South Africa in the early 1800s -- live in the lower northern and lower central regions; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim, live along the southeastern border with Mozambique.

Culture

Mozambique Main article: Culture of Malawi
- African Baptist Assembly of Malawi
- Malawian English
- Music of Malawi
- Athletics in Malawi

References

- CIA World Factbook
- US State Department [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm]

Reference

- Owen J. M. Kalinga and Cynthia A. Crosby, Historical Dictionary of Malawi, 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 2001) ISBN 0-8108-3481-2

External links

Government

- [http://www.malawi.gov.mw/ Government of the Republic of Malawi] official site
- [http://www.malawi.gov.mw/Parliament/parliament.htm Malawi National Assembly] official site
- [http://www.information.gov.mw/ Ministry of Information and Tourism] official site

News

- [http://allafrica.com/malawi/ allAfrica.com - Malawi] news headline links
- [http://www.go2malawi.com/ Friday in Malawi] free weekly emagazine - what's on & classifieds
- [http://www.nationmalawi.com/ The Nation Online] daily national newspaper

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068913.stm BBC News Country Profile - Malawi]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mi.html CIA World Factbook - Malawi]

Directories

- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065675/us559932/ LookSmart - Malawi] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Malawi/ Open Directory Project - Malawi] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/malawi.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Malawi] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Malawi The Index on Africa - Malawi] directory category
- [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Malawi.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: Malawi] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Malawi/ Yahoo! - Malawi] directory category
- [http://www.zikomo.net Zikomo.Net] free online business directory for Malawi

Tourism

- [http://www.go2malawi.com/blog/ Go 2 Malawi] travel log to promote Malawi
-
- [http://www.tourismmalawi.com/ Visit Malawi] official tourism site

Other

- [http://www.cridoc.net Child Rights in Malawi]
- [http://www.chrr.org.mw Human Rights in Malawi]
- [http://www.poly.ac.mw/~moss Malawi Open Source Society]
- [http://www.bawo.org Malawi National Game]
- [http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/charity-news/malawi-emergency-famine.htm 2005 Malawi Famine] Category:African Union member states Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Malaŵi ko:말라위 ms:Malawi ja:マラウイ

Tanzania

History

Politics

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Regions

Culture

Communications

Miscellaneous topics

External links

Government

- [http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site
- [http://www.parliament.go.tz/ Parliament of Tanzania] official site

Higher Learning Institutions

News

Business

- [http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]

Overviews

Directories

Tourism

-
- [http://www.discovertanzania.org/tanzania.asp Tanzania] Climate, medical and visa information

Other

Joseph Kabila

Joseph Kabila Kabange (born June 4, 1971) became president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo after the assassination of his father Laurent-Désiré Kabila in January 2001. He has attempted to end the civil war and remove foreign troops from the country, with some success. Following a peace agreement, an interim administration was set up in 2003, including the leaders of the country's two main rebel groups as vice-presidents (two other vice-presidents are representatives of the civilian opposition and government supporters respectively). Proposals have been made to hold elections before the end of 2005. On March 28, 2004, a coup attempt or mutiny around the capital Kinshasa, allegedly organized by supporters of the late president Mobutu Sese Seko, failed. On June 11, 2004, coup plotters led by Major Eric Lenge attempted to take power, declaring that the country's peace process was not working, but were defeated by loyalist troops. Kabila fought in his father's rebel army during the campaign that brought him to power. He received military training from the neighbouring governments of Uganda and Rwanda. He served in numerous posts prior to becoming president, including major general and chief of staff within the army, heading up the government's fight against former rebels. He was considered young and inexperienced when he became president following the murder of his father Laurent Kabila.

References

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1076399.stm BBC Country Profile]
-

External links

- [http://www.un.int/drcongo/index.html Democratic Republic of the Congo - Permanent Mission to the United Nations] Kabila, Joseph Kabila, Joseph Kabila, Joseph

Specioza Kazibwe

Specioza Naigaga Wandira Kazibwe (maiden name Specioza Naigaga) (born 1 July 1955) was the elected Vice President of Uganda, serving from 1994 until 2003, being the first woman in Africa to hold that position. She first began serving the administration of Yoweri Museveni in 1989, when she was appointed Deputy Minister for Industry. In from 1991 to 1994, she was Minister for Gender and Community Development. Dr. Kazibwe was born 1 July 1995 in the Iganga District of Eastern Uganda. She studied medicine at Makerere University in Kampala. She has four children from her first husband and has adopted several other children. Dr. Kazibwe began her political career as a member of the youth and women's wings of the Ugandan Democratic Party, and won her first election as a village leader as a member of the Museveni led National Resistance Movement (NRM) in th early 1980s. She was later elected Women's Representative for the Kampala District and became Chairperson of the Advisory Committee for Museveni's election campaign in 1986. In the NRM government, Kazibwe served as Deputy Minister for Industry from 1989 to 1991, as Minister for Gender and Community Development and as Vice-President and Minister of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries from 1994 until 2003. She was a member of the Consittuent Assembly which drafted Uganda's new constitution in 1994, and in 1996, she was elected Member of Parliament for the constituency of Kigulu South in the Iganga District. Dr. Kazibwe has been an advocate for women in their position in Africa. In collaboration with the Organization of African Unity and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, she founded the African Women Committee on Peace and Development (AWCDP) in 1998 to help enable women's participation in peace and development processes on the continent, an organization which she has chaired. Dr. Kazibwe has also been chair or a member of various national interest groups, including the Senior Women's Advisory Group on the Environment, the Uganda Women Entrepreneurs Association Limited, and the Uganda Women Doctors Association. In 1998, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) awarded her the "Ceres Medal" for her "contribution to food security and poverty eradication".

Divorse and resignation

In April of 2002, Dr. Kazibwe filed for divorse from her husband, saying that she refused to be the victom of continued domestic violence. Wife beating is relatively common in Uganda, as well as polygamy, but divorse is relatively rare. Mr. Kazibwe opposed the divorse, citing his Catholic faith, and saying that his wife had come home late without giving a proper explination, and had joined with some other politicians he did not like [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1226/p01s04-woaf.html]. Finding it difficult to perform her political duties and deal with the increasingly messy idvorce case, Dr. On Wednesday, May 21, 2003, Dr. Kazibwe stepped down from her positions in government, asking to be allowed to continue her medical studies. She is currently studying medicine at Harvard.

References

- [http://www.kituochakatiba.co.ug/specioza.htm Profile at the website of Kituo Cha Katiba: East African Centre for Constitutional Development as a part of the Makerere University Faculty of Law]
- [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1226/p01s04-woaf.html "In Uganda, a woman can be VP but have few rights] by Rachel Sheier in the December 26, 2003 of the Christian Science Monitor

Julius Nyerere

Julius Kambarage Nyerere (April 13, 1922 - October 14, 1999) was President of Tanzania, and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding until his retirement in 1985. Born in Tanganyika to a local Zanaki chief called Mzee Burito, Nyerere was known by the Swahili name Mwalimu or 'teacher' because of his profession before becoming active in politics. He had been trained in history and economics at the University of Edinburgh. Nyerere was a co-founder of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) which merged with the Afro-Shirazi Party of Zanzibar to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM or Revolutionary State Party). Nyerere worked for social equality, peaceful race relations, and independence for Tanganyika. Independence was achieved in 1961, with Nyerere serving as Prime Minister. When Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the new state of Tanzania, Nyerere was elected as the first President. When in power, Nyerere implemented a socialist economic program (announced in the Arusha Declaration), establishing close ties with China, and also introduced a policy of collectivization in the country's agricultural system, known as Ujamaa or "familyhood". Although some of his policies can be characterized as socialist, Nyerere was first and foremost an African, and secondly a socialist. He was what is often called an African socialist. Nyerere had tremendous faith in rural African people and their traditional values and ways of life. He believed that life should be structured around the ujamaa, or extended family found in traditional Africa. He believed that in these traditional villages, the state of ujamaa had existed before the arrival of imperialists. All that needed to be done was to return to this state and capitalism would be forgotten. He believed that Africans were already, recently, socialists, all that they needed to do was return to their traditional mode of life and they would recapture it. This would be a true repudiation of capitalism, since his society would not rely on capitalism to exist. This ujamaa system failed to boost agricultural output and by 1976, the end of the forced collectivization program, Tanzania went from the largest exporter of agricultural products in Africa to the largest importer of agricultural products in Africa. Chastised for the failure of his ujamaa program to improve the Tanzanian economy, Nyerere decided not to run for reelection in 1985. With unusual frankness for a politician, he stated in his farewell speech, "I failed. Let's admit it." Nyerere was also one of the founders of the Organization of African Unity in 1963. From the mid 1970s, with President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia he was the instigator and leader of the "Front Line States", which provided uncompromising support for the campaign for Black Majority Rule in South Africa. He played a major role in overthrowing the oppressive dictatorship of Idi Amin in neighboring Uganda, as well as the coup in Seychelles that brought France-Albert René to power.

Literary work

In an attempt to teach the inhumanity of capitalism and materialism, Nyerere translated William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar and The Merchant of Venice into Swahili[http://www.archiveshub.ac.uk/news/0304jnye.html] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,3604,258647,00.html] [http://search.eb.com/Blackhistory/article.do?nKeyValue=56571] [http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/people/nyerere/newsart.html]. Nyerere, Julius Nyerere, Julius Nyerere, Julius Nyerere, Julius ja:ジュリウス・ニエレレ

Milton Obote

Early life and first presidency

Second term

Death in exile

Reference

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Buganda

Buganda is the kingdom of the 52 clans of the Baganda people, the largest of the traditional kingdoms in present-day Uganda. The three million Baganda (singular Muganda; often referred to simply by the root word and adjective, Ganda) make up the largest Ugandan ethnic group, although they represent only about 16.7 percent of the population. The name Uganda, the Swahili term for Buganda, was adopted by British officials in 1894 when they established the Uganda Protectorate, centred in Buganda. Buganda's boundaries are marked by Lake Victoria on the south, the Victoria Nile River on the east, and Lake Kyoga on the north. The Luganda language is widely spoken in Buganda, and is one of the most popular second languages in Uganda along with English.

Culture

English to the east, and Lake Kyoga to the north.]] Authoritarian control is an important theme of Ganda culture. In precolonial times, obedience to the king was a matter of life and death. A second important theme of Ganda culture, however, is the emphasis on individual achievement. An individual's future is not entirely determined by status at birth. Instead, individuals carve out their fortunes by hard work as well as by choosing friends, allies, and patrons carefully. The traditional Ganda economy relied on crop cultivation. In contrast with many other East African economic systems, cattle played only a minor role. Many Baganda hired laborers from the north as herders. Bananas were the most important staple food, providing the economic base for the region's dense population growth. This crop does not require shifting cultivation or bush fallowing to maintain soil fertility, and as a result, Ganda villages were quite permanent. Women did most of the agricultural work, while men often engaged in commerce and politics (and in precolonial times, warfare). Ganda social organization emphasized descent through males. Four or five generations of descendants of one man, related through male forebears, constituted a patrilineage. A group of related lineages constituted a clan. Clan leaders could summon a council of lineage heads, and council decisions affected all lineages within the clan. Many of these decisions regulated marriage, which had always been between two different lineages, forming important social and political alliances for the men of both lineages. Lineage and clan leaders also helped maintain efficient land use practices, and they inspired pride in the group through ceremonies and remembrances of ancestors. Ganda villages, sometimes as large as forty or fifty homes, were generally located on hillsides, leaving hilltops and swampy lowlands uninhabited, to be used for crops or pastures. Early Ganda villages surrounded the home of a chief or headman, which provided a common meeting ground for members of the village. The chief collected tribute from his subjects, provided tribute to the kabaka, distributed resources among his subjects, maintained order, and reinforced social solidarity through his decision-making skills. Late nineteenth-century Ganda villages became more dispersed as the role of the chiefs diminished in response to political turmoil, population migration, and occasional popular revolts. swampy lowlands, it is a major example of an architectural achievement in organic materials, principally wood, thatch, reed, wattle and daub. The tombs are designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.]] Most lineages maintained links to a home territory (butaka) within a larger clan territory, but lineage members did not necessarily live on butaka land. Men from one lineage often formed the core of a village; their wives, children, and in-laws joined the village. People were free to leave if they became disillusioned with the local leader to take up residence with other relatives or in-laws, and they often did so. The family in Buganda is often described as a microcosm of the kingdom. The father is revered and obeyed as head of the family. His decisions are generally unquestioned. A man's social status is determined by those with whom he establishes patronclient relationships, and one of the best means of securing this relationship is through one's children. Baganda children, some as young as three years old, are sent to live in the homes of their social superiors, both to cement ties of loyalty among parents and to provide avenues for social mobility for their children. Even in the 1980s, Baganda children were considered psychologically better prepared for adulthood if they had spent several years living away from their parents at a young age. Baganda recognize at a very young age that their superiors, too, live in a world of rules. Social rules require a man to share his wealth by offering hospitality, and this rule applies more stringently to those of higher status. Superiors are also expected to behave with impassivity, dignity, self-discipline, and self-confidence, and adopting these mannerisms sometimes enhances a man's opportunities for success. Ganda culture tolerates social diversity more easily than many other African societies. Even before the arrival of Europeans, many Ganda villages included residents from outside Buganda. Some had arrived in the region as slaves, but by the early twentieth century, many non-Baganda migrant workers stayed in Buganda to farm. Marriage with non-Baganda was fairly common, and many Baganda marriages ended in divorce. After independence, Ugandan officials estimated that one-third to one-half of all adults marry more than once during their lives.

History

Pre-colonial and colonial Buganda

Originally a vassal state of Bunyoro, Buganda grew rapidly in power in the eighteenth and nineteenth century becoming the dominant kingdom in the region. Buganda was never conquered by colonial armies; rather the powerful king (kabaka), Mutesa, agreed to protectorate status. At the time, Mutesa claimed territory as far west as Lake Albert, and he considered the agreement with Britain to be an alliance between equals. Baganda armies went on to help establish colonial rule in other areas, and Baganda agents served as tax collectors throughout the protectorate. Trading centres in Buganda became important towns in the protectorate, and the Baganda took advantage of the opportunities provided by European commerce and education. At independence in 1962, Buganda had achieved the highest standard of living and the highest literacy rate in the country. 1962 The twentieth-century influence of the Baganda in Uganda has reflected the impact of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments. A series of kabakas amassed military and political power by killing rivals to the throne, abolishing hereditary positions of authority, and exacting higher taxes from their subjects. Ganda armies also seized territory held by Bunyoro, the neighboring kingdom to the west. Ganda cultural norms also prevented the establishment of a royal clan by assigning the children of the kabaka to the clan of their mother. At the same time, this practice allowed the kabaka to marry into any clan in the society. One of the most powerful appointed advisers of the kabaka was the katikiro, who was in charge of the kingdom's administrative and judicial systems - effectively serving as both prime minister and chief justice. The katikiro and other powerful ministers formed an inner circle of advisers who could summon lower-level chiefs and other appointed advisers to confer on policy matters. By the end of the nineteenth century, the kabaka had replaced many clan heads with appointed officials and claimed the title "head of all the clans." The power of the kabaka impressed British officials, but political leaders in neighboring Bunyoro were not receptive to British officials who arrived with Baganda escorts. Buganda became the centrepiece of the new protectorate, with a degree of control over the other kingdoms: Toro, Nkore, Busoga and Bunyoro. Many Baganda were able to take advantage of opportunities provided by schools and businesses in their area. Baganda civil servants also helped administer other ethnic groups, and Uganda's early history was written from the perspective of the Baganda and the colonial officials who became accustomed to dealing with them.

Power politics in pre-independence Uganda

Bunyoro The prospect of elections in the run up to independence caused a sudden proliferation of new political parties. This development alarmed the old-guard leaders within the Uganda kingdoms, because they realized that the centre of power would be at the national level. The spark that ignited wider opposition to Governor Cohen's reforms was a 1953 speech in London in which the secretary of state for colonies referred to the possibility of a federation of the three East African territories (Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika), similar to that established in central Africa. Many Ugandans were aware of the Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (later Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi) and its domination by white settler interests. Ugandans deeply feared the prospect of an East African federation dominated by the racist settlers of Kenya, which was then in the midst of the bitter Mau Mau uprising. They had vigorously resisted a similar suggestion by the 1930 Hilton Young Commission. Confidence in Cohen vanished just as the governor was preparing to urge Buganda to recognize that its special status would have to be sacrificed in the interests of a new and larger nation-state. Kabaka Freddie, who had been regarded by his subjects as uninterested in their welfare, now refused to cooperate with Cohen's plan for an integrated Buganda. Instead, he demanded that Buganda be separated from the rest of the protectorate and transferred to Foreign Office jurisdiction. Cohen's response to this crisis was to deport the kabaka to a comfortable exile in London. His forced departure made the kabaka an instant martyr in the eyes of the Baganda, whose latent separatism and anticolonial sentiments set off a storm of protest. Cohen's action had backfired, and he could find no one among the Baganda prepared or able to mobilize support for his schemes. After two frustrating years of unrelenting Ganda hostility and obstruction, Cohen was forced to reinstate Kabaka Freddie. The negotiations leading to the kabaka's return had an outcome similar to the negotiations of Commissioner Johnston in 1900; although appearing to satisfy the British, they were a resounding victory for the Baganda. Cohen secured the kabaka's agreement not to oppose independence within the larger Uganda framework. Not only was the kabaka reinstated in return, but for the first time since 1889, the monarch was given the power to appoint and dismiss his chiefs (Buganda government officials) instead of acting as a mere figurehead while they conducted the affairs of government. The kabaka's new power was cloaked in the misleading claim that he would be only a "constitutional monarch," while in fact he was a leading player in deciding how Uganda would be governed. A new grouping of Baganda calling themselves "the King's Friends" rallied to the kabaka's defense. They were conservative, fiercely loyal to Buganda as a kingdom, and willing to entertain the prospect of participation in an independent Uganda only if it were headed by the kabaka. Baganda politicians who did not share this vision or who were opposed to the "King's Friends" found themselves branded as the "King's Enemies," which meant political and social ostracism. The major exception to this rule were the Roman Catholic Baganda who had formed their own party, the Democratic Party (DP), led by Benedicto Kiwanuka. Many Catholics had felt excluded from the Protestant-dominated establishment in Buganda ever since Frederick Lugard's Maxim machine gun had turned the tide in 1892. The kabaka had to be Protestant, and he was invested in a coronation ceremony modeled on that of British monarchs (who are invested by the Church of England's Archbishop of Canterbury) that took place at the main Protestant church. Religion and politics were equally inseparable in the other kingdoms throughout Uganda. The DP had Catholic as well as other adherents and was probably the best organized of all the parties preparing for elections. It had printing presses and the backing of the popular newspaper, Munno, which was published at the St. Mary's Kisubi mission. Elsewhere in Uganda, the emergence of the kabaka as a political force provoked immediate hostility. Political parties and local interest groups were riddled with divisions and rivalries, but they shared one concern: they were determined not to be dominated by Buganda. In 1960 a political organizer from Lango, Milton Obote, seized the initiative and formed a new party, the Uganda People's Congress (UPC), as a coalition of all those outside the Roman Catholic-dominated DP who opposed Buganda hegemony. Uganda People's Congress in 1939.]] The steps Cohen had initiated to bring about the independence of a unified Uganda state had led to a polarization between factions from Buganda and those opposed to its domination. Buganda's population in 1959 was 2 million, out of Uganda's total of 6 million. Even discounting the many non-Baganda resident in Buganda, there were at least 1 million people who owed allegiance to the kabaka - too many to be overlooked or shunted aside, but too few to dominate the country as a whole. At the London Conference of 1960, it was obvious that Buganda autonomy and a strong unitary government were incompatible, but no compromise emerged, and the decision on the form of government was postponed. The British announced that elections would be held in March 1961 for "responsible government," the next-to-last stage of preparation before the formal granting of independence. It was assumed that those winning the election would gain valuable experience in office, preparing them for the probable responsibility of governing after independence. In Buganda the "King's Friends" urged a total boycott of the election because their attempts to secure promises of future autonomy had been rebuffed. Consequently, when the voters went to the polls throughout Uganda to elect eighty-two National Assembly members, in Buganda only the Roman Catholic supporters of the DP braved severe public pressure and voted, capturing twenty of Buganda's twenty-one allotted seats. This artificial situation gave the DP a majority of seats, although they had a minority of 416,000 votes nationwide versus 495,000 for the UPC. Benedicto Kiwanuka became the new chief minister of Uganda. Shocked by the results, the Baganda separatists, who formed a political party called Kabaka Yekka, had second thoughts about the wisdom of their election boycott. They quickly welcomed the recommendations of a British commission that proposed a future federal form of government. According to these recommendations, Buganda would enjoy a measure of internal autonomy if it participated fully in the national government. For its part, the UPC was equally anxious to eject its DP rivals from government before they became entrenched. Obote reached an understanding with Kabaka Freddie and the KY, accepting Buganda's special federal relationship and even a provision by which the kabaka could appoint Buganda's representatives to the National Assembly, in return for a strategic alliance to defeat the DP. The kabaka was also promised the largely ceremonial position of head of state of Uganda, which was of great symbolic importance to the Baganda. This marriage of convenience between the UPC and the KY made inevitable the defeat of the DP interim administration. In the aftermath of the April 1962 final election leading up to independence, Uganda's national parliament consisted of fortythree UPC delegates, twenty-four KY delegates, and twenty-four DP delegates. The new UPC-KY coalition led Uganda into independence in October 1962, with Obote as prime minister and the kabaka as head of state.

After independence

Uganda achieved independence on 9 October 1962 with the Kabaka of Buganda, Sir Edward Mutesa II, as its first president. However, the monarchy of Buganda and much of its autonomy was revoked, along with that of the other four Ugandan kingdoms. At this time, the kingship controversy was the most important issue in Ugandan politics. Although there were four kingdoms, the real question was how much control over Buganda the central government should have. The power of the king as a uniting symbol for the Baganda became apparent following his deportation by the protectorate government in 1953. When negotiations for independence threatened the autonomous status of Buganda, leading notables organized a political party to protect the king. The issue was successfully presented as a question of survival of the Baganda as a separate nation because the position of the king had been central to Buganda's precolonial culture. On that basis, defense of the kingship attracted overwhelming support in local Buganda government elections, which were held just before independence. To oppose the king in Buganda at that time would have meant political suicide. president, is adorned in traditional Samburu jewellery on a visit to Kenya.]] In 1967, the prime Minister Apollo Milton Obote changed the 1966 constitution and turned the state into a republic, forcing Mutesa II into exile, where he died three years later. The Ugandan army turned the king's palace into their barracks and the Buganda parliament building into their headquarters. It was difficult to know how many Baganda continued to support the kingship and how intensely they felt about it because no one could express support openly. In 1972, Obote was deposed in a coup by the head of the army, Idi Amin. After a brief flirtation with restoration, Idi Amin also refused to consider restoration of the kingdoms. By the 1980s, Obote had once again returned to power and more than half of all Baganda had never lived under their king. The Conservative Party, a marginal group led by the last man to serve as Buganda's prime minister under a king, contested the 1980 elections but received little support. In 1986, the National Resistance Movement (NRM), led by Yoweri Museveni, would take power in Uganda. While fighting a guerrilla war against Obote, NRM leaders could not be sure that the Baganda would accept their government or their Ten-Point Programme. The NRA was ambivalent in its response to this issue. On the one hand, until its final year, the insurgency against the Obote regime had been conducted entirely in Buganda, involved a large number of Baganda fighters, and depended heavily on the revulsion most Baganda felt for Obote and the UPC. On the other hand, many Baganda who had joined the NRA and received a political education in the Ten-Point Programme rejected ethnic loyalty as the basis of political organization. Nevertheless, though a matter of dispute, many Ugandans reported that Museveni promised in public, near the end of the guerrilla struggle, to restore the kingship and to permit Ronald Mutebi, the heir apparent, to become king. Many other Ugandans opposed the restoration just as strongly, primarily for the political advantages it would give Buganda. Ronald Mutebi Controversy erupted a few months after the NRM takeover in 1986, when the heads of each of the clans in Buganda organized a public campaign for the restoration of the kingship, the return of the Buganda parliament building (which the NRA had continued to use as the army headquarters), and permission for Mutebi to return to Uganda. Over the next month, the government struggled to regain the political initiative from the clan heads. First, in July 1986 the prime minister, Samson Kisekka - a Muganda - told people at a public rally in Buganda to stop this "foolish talk." Without explanation, the government abruptly ordered the cancellation of celebrations to install the heir of another kingdom a week later. Nevertheless, the newspapers reported more demands for the return of Mutebi by Buganda clan elders. The cabinet then issued a statement conceding the intensity of public interest but insisting the question of restoring kings was up to the forthcoming Constitutional Assembly and not within the powers of the interim government. Then, three weeks later, the NRM issued its own carefully worded statement calling supporters of restoration "disgruntled opportunists purporting to be monarchists" and threatening to take action against anyone who continued to agitate on this issue. At the same time, the president agreed to meet with the clan elders, even though that gave a fresh public boost to the controversy. Then, in a surprise move, the president convinced Mutebi to return home secretly in mid-August 1986, presenting the clan elders with a fait accompli. Ten days later, the government arrested a number of Baganda, whom it accused of a plot to overthrow the government and restore the king. But while Museveni managed to take the wind from the sails of Buganda nationalism, he was forced to go to inordinate lengths to defuse public feeling, and nothing was settled. The kingship issue was likely to re-emerge with equal intensity and unpredictable consequences when the draft for a new constitution was presented for public discussion. The monarchy was finally restored in 1993, with the son of Mutesa II, Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II as its Kabaka. Buganda is now a constitutional monarchy, with a parliament called Lukiiko that sits in parliamentary buildings called Bulange. The Lukiiko has a sergeant-at-arms, speaker and provisional seats for the royals, 18 county chiefs, cabinet ministers, 52 clan heads, invited guests and a gallery. The Kabaka only attends two sessions in a year; once when he is opening the first session of the year and twice, when he is closing the last session of the year.

Notes

# [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1022 Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi], UNESCO website.

External links

- [http://www.myuganda.co.ug/categories/about/people_culture/mornachies/buganda/index.htm Brief description of Buganda at www.myuganda.co.ug]
- [http://www.buganda.com/ Buganda.com] Category:Geography of Uganda Category:Ugandan monarchies Category:Ethnic groups of Uganda

Gesetz zur Förderung des Friesischen im öffentlichen Raum

Das Friesisch-Gesetz (Friesisch: Friisk Gesäts; Gesäts fort stipen foont friisk önj e öfentlikhäid; deutsch: Gesetz zur Förderung des Friesischen im öffentlichen Raum; Friesisch-Gesetz – FriesischG) ist ein vom SSW und vor allem vom Landtagsabgeordneten Lars Harms eingebrachtes und am 11. November 2004 vom Landtag Schleswig-Holstein verabschiedetes Gesetz, das u.a. folgende Punkte regelt:
- Friesisch ist zweite offizielle Sprache im Kreis Nordfriesland und auf Helgoland
- das Bekenntnis zur friesischen Volksgruppe ist frei
- Friesische Sprachkenntnisse werden bei der Einstellung in den öffentlichen Dienst berücksichtigt
- Beschilderung an Gebäuden kann zweisprachig sein
- die friesische Fahne (gold-rot-blau) kann neben der Landesfahne gezeigt werden
- Ortstafeln können zweisprachig angefertigt werden

Weblinks

- http://www.lvn.parlanet.de/infothek/wahl15/drucks/3100/drucksache-15-3150.pdf - Gesetzentwurf
- http://www.abendblatt.de/daten/2004/11/12/363320.html - Meldung über Verabschiedung
- http://www.lvn.parlanet.de/infothek/wahl15/drucks/3700/drucksache-15-3727.pdf - Endgültige Fassung Kategorie:Gesetz (Schleswig-Holstein)

zujer spalacze t�uszczu narty we francji Sepsa Pozycjonowanie

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